Glass 
Book 




! 




THE WILD RICE GATHERERS OF THE 
UPPER LAKES 



A STUDY IN AMERICAN PRIMITIVE ECONOMICS 



BY 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS, Ph. T>., % 

Assistant Eth nologist 

ubeau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1). C. 



A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, 1899 



EXTRACT FROM THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

RECEIVED 

APR $ 1902 
DIVISION OF DOCUMENTS. 



WAS 

GOVERNMENT 



IIINGTON 

PRINTING 

1 9 0 I 



OFFICE 




I 



T 



THE WILD RICE GATHERERS OF THE 
UPPER LAKES 

A STUDY IN AMERICAN PRIMITIVE ECONOMICS 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS.Ph.D., 

Assistant Eth nologist 

Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. 



A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, 1899 



EXTRACT FROM THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING 
1901 



OFFICE 



13 JAN 1906 
D. of 0, 



THE WILD RICE GATHERERS OF THE UPPER LAKES 

A STUDY IN AMERICAN PRIMITIVE ECONOMICS 

BY 

ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



1013 



CONTENTS 

Page 



Introduction 1019 

Chapter I — Botany 1021 

Scientific names 1021 

Popular synonyms 1022 

Etymology of mano'mln 1024 

Scientific description 1025 

*r Popular description 1025 

Natural enemies 1026 

Chapter II— Habitat 1028 

Introduction 1028 

Habitat according to States 1028 

Habitat in the wild-rice district 1033 

Foreign habitat 1036 

Chapter III — Indians 1038 

The Ojibwa 1038 

The Dakota 1043 

The Menomini 1047 

The Sauk and Fox 1050 

The Winnebago . 1051 

The Potawatomi 1053 

The Maskotin 1053 

The Assiniboin 1054 

The Kickapoo, Ottawa and Huron 1055 

Chapter IV — Production 1056 

Introduction 1056 

Sowing and other early care 1057 

Tying.... 1058 

Gathering 1061 

Curing and drying 1064 

Thrashing 1066 

Winnowing 1070 

Storing '. 1071 

Property-right in wild rice 1072 

Amounts of wild rice harvested 1073 

Chapter V — Consumption 1080 

' Nutrition 1080 

Ways of preparing wild rice for food - 1083 

Periods of consumption 1086 

Chapter VI — General social and economic interpretations 1089 

The wild-rice moon 1089 

Wild rice in ceremonials and in mythology as found in Indian traditions . 1090 

Dependence of the Indian on wild rice 1095 

Dependence of the white man on wild rice 1101 

Indian population of the wild-rice district 1106 

1015 



1016 CONTENTS 

Page. 

Chapter VII — Influence of wild rice on geographic nomenclature 1115 

Introduction 1115 

Sections of country 1116 

Cities, stations, etc 1117 

Rivers, creeks, lakes, and ponds 1118 

Bibliography 1126 

List of correspondents 1133 

Chronologic list of maps 1136 



TABLES 

A. Statistical view of wild rice production 1075 

B. Value of wild rice per bushel 1078 

C. Standard of life of wild rice producing Indians 1079 

D. Composition of cereals and Indian foods 1081 

E. Bouquet's estimate of Indian population in 1764 1108 

F. Monroe's estimate of Indian population in 1778 1109 

G. Pike's estimate of Indian population in the wild-rice district in 1806 1109 

H. Ratio of warriors to whole tribe 1110 

I. Estimate of Indian population in 1822 1110 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 



I Plate LXVI. Wild rice habitat by States 1033 

■J LXVII. a, Wild-rice bed in Lac Courte Oreille river; b, Ojibwa birch- 
bark and matting wigwam at the wild-rice field 1043 

LXVIII. Permanent ash-bark wigwam of the wild rice gathering Ojibwa. 1049 
<f LXIX. Portable birch-bark and rush-matting wigwam of the wild rice 

gathering Ojibwa 1053 

J LXX. Indian woman on her way to the rice bed to tie the stalks 1056 

•! LXXI. A narrow bed of wild rice tied in bunches or sheaves 1059 

v' LXXII. Tied bunches of wild rice 1060 

J LXXIII. Birch-bark canoes of wild rice gathering Ojibwa 1065 

J LXXIV. a, Wild-rice field after the harvest; b, Drying rack for grain... 1067 
•J LXXV. «, Section of drying rack; b, Stave-lined thrashing hole for 

treading out the grain 1068 

■» LXXVI. Wild-rice kernels before thrashing 1070 

J LXXVII. «, Thrashing wild rice by means of a churndasher-like stick; 

b, Indian woman winnowing wild rice 1073 

~f LXXVIII. Wild-rice kernels after thrashing and winnowing 1074 

•I LXXIX. a, Birch-bark rnococks in which the grain is carried; b, Birch- 
bark winnowing tray 1080 

Figure 47. Sickle-shaped sticks used to draw the stalks within reach for tying. 1060 

48. Map showing areas whose population is compared 1106 

1017 




I 



I 
I 



THE WILD RICE GATHERERS OF THE UPPER LAKES 



By Albert Ernest Jenks 



INTRODUCTION 

This memoir was begun with the hope that eventually other some- 
what similar studies of American primitive economics might be made 
which would throw light from an almost new direction on the culture 
status of the North American Indians. As the economic motive is so 
dominant among the foremost peoples of to-day, its ascenclence must 
mark a new stage in the measurement of culture. It has been very 
interesting to find, through this study, three distinct steps in the 
development of the motive for production, beginning with myth- 
founded belief and rising to an incipient state of economic consider- 
ation. For example, the Menomini Indians absolutely refuse to sow 
wild rice — their motive is simply that of belief; the Dakota Indians 
do not sow the grain, but apparently have no myth -founded scruple 
against it; while among the Ojibwa no such belief seems likely ever 
to have existed, for they sow the grain from purely economic motive, 
though such motive is not so dominant as among inanjr maize-producing 
tribes. 

This study has helped to elucidate the culture position of the tribes 
which used wild rice by showing the motives for production, the 
effect on the Indian of such quantities of spontaneous vegetal food, 
the property-right in the rice beds, and the division of labor. It 
has given a detailed picture of aboriginal economic activity which is 
absolutely unique, and in which no article is employed not of aborig- 
inal conception and workmanship. It has thrown light upon the 
almost constant warfare between the Dakota and Ojibwa Indians for 
two hundred and fifty years. It has shed light also upon the fur trade 
in a territory unexcelled in the richness of its furs, yet almost inac- 
cessible had it not been for the wild rice which furnished such nour- 
ishing and wholesome support to the traders and hunters. It also 
shows that much of history is wrapped up in native geographic 
names; and it is hoped that it may help to promote the preservation 
and retention of such terms. It has suggested new lines of manu- 
facture. 

1019 



1020 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann..9 



I am indebted to Professor Richard T. Ely, director, and to Professor 
William A. Scott and Professor Frederick J. Turner, of the school of 
economics, political science, and history, of the University of Wis- 
consin, at Madison, where this study was made, for the suggestions 
and assistance usually given in the preparation of such a thesis. 

Most of the historical data was collected in the library of the Wis- 
consin Historical Society, at Madison. To Mr Reuben Gold Thwaites, 
secretary and superintendent, and to other members of the library 
stall', I owe much. By unusual favors and almost constant service they 
have greatly lessened my labors. 

I am also under obligation to Professor F. W. Woll, chemist of the 
experiment station at Madison, for his painstaking analysis showing 
the nutritive value of wild rice. 

A part of the data was collected by correspondence, and I gladly 
take this opportunity to thank those gentlemen whose names appear 
in the subjoined list of correspondents. 

But most of all I am indebted to Professor W J McGee, ethnologist 
in charge of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and to Dr Otis T. 
Mason, of the United States National Museum, both of whom 
suggested the subject of this study. Through correspondence and 
personal conferences Professor McGee has rendered valuable assist- 
ance. It is to him also that I owe the opportunity of visiting many 
wild rice producing Indians in the autumn of 1899, when I obtained 
additional data and the illustrations for this study. 

I am aware that the text of this memoir carries a greater burden of 
facts than is necessary to prove the points of the thesis. Had the 
study been published, sinrply as a doctor's thesis, many facts now in 
the text would have been omitted, or put in footnotes or appendices. 



Chapter I 



BOTANY 
Scientific Names 

During the early history of the science of botany the wild-rice 
plant, with which this memoir deals, received many scientific names. 
It is today known as Zisania aquatica, and. is a grass belonging to the 
order GraminecB, to the lesser tribe Oryzew, to the genus Zizania, 
and to the species aquatica. 1 The word "zizania" appears in the 
New Testament in the Gospel according to Matthew, xiii, 25, 26, 27, 
29, 30, where it is supposed to refer to lolium. The word is translated 
"tares," and the plant is there spoken of as growing in farming soil 
among the wheat. 2 However, the plant under present discussion is 
aquatic, and there is no likeness between the two except in name. 

The following table presents a list of various scientific synonj'ms hy 
which the plant Zizania aquatica has been known: 3 

Zizania — Gronovious, ex Linneus, Gen. ed., vol. n (1742), p. 863. 
*Graminese — Bentham and Hooker, f. 3, p. 1115. 

*Elymus— Mitchell, in Act. Phys. Med. Acad. Nat. Cur., vol. vm (1748), appendix, 
p. 210. 

* Fartis — Adams, Fam., vol. n (1763), p. 37. 

Hydropyrum — Link; see Index Generum Phanerogamorum (1888), p. 468. 
Melinum— Link, op. cit. 

Zizaniopsis — Doll et Aschers; see Index Generum Phanerogamorum (1888), p. 468. 
Zizania aquatica— Linn. , Mant. , p. 295. 

Zizania clavulosa — Micheaux, PI. Bor. Am., vol. i (1803), p. 75. 

Zizania effusa — Herb, of Linn, (so marked, but not by Linn.), Jour. Linn. Soc, vol. vi 
(1862) , p. 52. 

* Zizania latifolia— Turczaninow, Bull. Soc. Nat. M. S. (1825) 105; vol. xxix (1856), 
number 1, p. 2. 

Zizania palustris — Linn., Mant., vol. n (1771), p. 295. 

The Hydropyrum eseulentum of Link is the same as Zizania aquatica. 
It is asserted 4 that Z. latifolia of Japan and eastern Russia is iden- 
tical with the North American Z. aquatica, but Prof. J. Matsumura, of 
the Imperial University, Japan, writes that the American plant is 
identical with a plant growing in Japan, Formosa, and eastern China 
which bears the name Zizania aquatica. 6 

l F. Lamson-Scribner in Bull. 7 of the Division of Agrostology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
revised ed., Washington, 1898. 
2 William Darlington, Agricultural Botany, New York, 1847, p. 207. 
3 Those marked * have not been verified; they are from secondary sources. 
4 Bentham in Journal of the Linnsan Society, vol. xix (1882), p. 54. 
5 J. Matsumura, letter, Dec. 16, 1898. 

1021 



1022 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.anx.19 



In America the plant under present consideration is ordinarily 
known as "wild rice," a term similar to the common names of several 
other American grasses, thus necessitating some care in distinction. 
The greatest confusion will arise, doubtless, with Zizania rniliacea, 
the only other American plant of the same genus. This latter plant is 
very common in the brackish waters of the southern states. It is some- 
times called "prolific rice," and is said to grow in shallow waters in 
Ohio and Wisconsin as well as in the south. 1 Some confusion may 
arise also with plants of the same tribe, such as "little mountain rice" 
( Oryzopsis exigua), a slender perennial found among rocks and canyons 
and on mountain tops in Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Oregon, and Wash- 
ington; 2 "white mountain rice" {Oryzopsis asperfolia), also a slender 
perennial, found in the woods in Newfoundland, in eastern United 
States from Massachusetts and New Jersey to Minnesota, and in the 
Rocky mountains from British Columbia to New Mexico; 3 "black 
mountain rice" (Oryzopsis melanocarpa), also a perennial, which is 
reported as growing in open rocky woods in Quebec and Ontario, and 
to the south as far as Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri, and Minnesota; 4 
"small-flowered mountain rice" (Oryzopsis micrantha), a slender, erect 
perennial growing in woods, along river bluffs, and on mountain sides 
from South Dakota to Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona; 5 
and Oryzopsis cuspidata, which grows in dry prairies about Fort Rob- 
inson, Nebraska. 6 

Popular Synonyms 

In America there are four chief sources from which popular syn- 
onyms are derived for the plant under consideration, viz, the French, 
English, Algonquian, and Siouan languages. Other synonyms arise 
through dialects and faulty spelling, and still others through ignorance 
of a foreign language. Below is presented a list of 60 synonyms for 
the plant in America. Only one reference for each name is given: 7 

Ah-wuh-kah-ne-me-no-min (Ojibwa of Grand Traverse bay) — Schoolcraft, Indian 

Tribes, vol. n, p. 463. 
American rice — Nuttall, Genera of North American Plants, vol. n, p. 210. 
A v en a patua — Alex. Henry, Travels, p. 241. 
Blackbird oats. 
Canadian oats. 

Caxadiax rice — Smith, Dictionary of Economic Plants. 

Canadian wild rice — Cyclopedia; or a New Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sci- 
ence, vol. XXXIX. 



'Chas. L.Flint, Grasses mid Forage I'lants, Lincoln, 1890, pp. 29-30. 

^Lamson-Scribner, American Grasses, 1, p. 113, in Bull. 7 of the Division of Agrostology, V. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture, revised ed. 
a Ibid., p. 111. 
« Ibid., p. lln. 

» Ibid., p. 114. 

"Bessey and Webber, Grasses and Forage I'lants. Lincoln, 1S90, p. 104. 
'See the bibliography for the complete titles of the references. 



JENKS] 



POPULAR SYNONYMS 



1023 



Espece de seigle de marais — Relations des J6suites, 1671, Quebec, 1858, vol. in, 
p. 39. 

Fals avoines — Flint, Geography and History, vol. i, p. 84. 
False oats — Neill, History of Minnesota, p. 111. 
Fatuis a vena — Flint, op. cit., p. 84. 

Fausse avoine — Relations des Jesuites, 1670, Quebec, 1858, vol. in, p. 92. 
Field rice — House of Representatives, 54th Cong., 1st sess., Report 268, p. 7. 
Foll avoin — Robt. Dickson in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xi, p. 292. 
Folle — Wisconsin Fur Trade Accounts, vol. iv, 1820-21, manuscript 172 (Wisconsin 

Historical Society manuscript collection). 
Folle Avoine — Flore Canadienne, Provancher, vol. n, p. 665. 
Folls Avoine — Morse, Report to Secretary of War, appendix, p. 34. 
Fols Avoin — Coues, Pike, vol. i, p. 76. 

Haferreis — Dietrich und Konig, Futtermittel, Zweite Auflage, Berlin, 1891, i, p. 585. 
Indian oats. 

Indian rice — Lamson-Scribner, Useful and Ornamental Grasses; U. S. Dept. of 

Agric, Div. of Agros., Bull. 3, p. 95. 
Mad oats — Kohl, Travels, vol. n, p. 46. 
Malomin — J. Long, Voyages and Travels, p. 205. 
Ma-no-men — Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xni, p. 443. 
Mano'min — Ojibwa Indians on Lac Courte Oreille reservation, Wisconsin, 1899. 
Man-om-in — Palmer, Food Products of the North American Indians; Rept. Dept. of 

Agric, 1870-71, p. 422. 
Manominan — Keating, Narrative of an Expedition, vol. n, p. 459. 
Manorrin — Lamson-Scribner, Useful and Ornamental Grasses. 
Marsh rice (a kind of). 

Meno'ma — Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 324. 
Menomen — Samuel R. Brown, Western Gazetteer, p. 267. 
Me-no-ma\v — Pokagon, letter, Nov. 16, 1898. 
Menomene — Flint, op. cit., p. 84. 
Menomon — J. Long, op. cit., p. 205. 
Mo-no-min — Schoolcraft, op. cit., vol. n, p. 463. 
Mon-o-min — Ibid. 

Monomonick — New York Colonial Documents, vol. ix, p. 161, note 6. 

Muhnoomin — Edw. F. Wilson, Ojebwa Language. 

Mun-no-min — Schoolcraft, op. cit, vol. n, p. 463. 

Mus-co-se-me-nah — Harmon, Journal, p. 394. 

Oats — Radisson, Voyages, p. 207. 

Pse — Keating, Narrative, vol. n, p. 459. 

Pshu — Edw. Palmer, op. cit, p. 422. 

Psin — Schoolcraft, op. cit., vol. i, p. 187. 

Psi'na — Winnebago Indians near Elroy, Wisconsin, winter 1898-99. 

Rice — Schoolcraft, op. cit., vol. i, p. 187. 

Riz du Canada— Flore Canadienne, vol. n, p. 665. 

Reed — Lamson-Scribner, Useful and Ornamental Grasses, p. 95. 

See-nah — Henry Merrell, Manuscript Winnebago Dictionary. 

Si n/ -i;ke'i nt — Dorsey, Omaha Sociology, Third Annual Rept. Bur. Ethnol., 1881-82, 
p. 308. 

Squaw rice — White inhabitants, Hay ward, Wisconsin, 1899. 
Standing corn — Ellis, Recollections, p. 265. 
Tuscarora — Flore Canadienne, vol. n, p. 665. 

Tuscarora rice — Lamson-Scribner, Useful and Ornamental Grasses, p. 95. 
Wasserhafer — Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der Agrikulturchemie, Fi'mfter 
Jahrgang, 1862-63, p. 59. 
19 ETH, PT 2 30 



1024 



WILD RICE GATHEEERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. a.n.n. 19 



Wasserreis — Ibid, p. 59. 

Water oats — Lamson-Scribner, op. cit., p. 95. 
Water rice — Ibid, p. 95. 

Wild oats — Coues, Expedition of Z. M. Pike, vol. i, p. 344. 
Wild rice — Lamson-Scribner, op. cit., p. 95. 

The letter from Professor Matsuinura, above referred to, enables 
me to add a short list of synonyms for the plant and seed from Japan, 
China, and Formosa, as follows: 

Chimaki-gusa (thousand-rolling-grass) — Japan. 
Katsubo (water- reed) — Japan. 
Komo-gaya ( covering-grass ) — Japan. 
Komo-gusa (matting or covering-grass) — Japan. 
M aki-gus a ( rolling-grass ) — Japan . 
Makomo (water-reed) — Japan. 
Kau-peh-sung — Formosa. 

Kansu (the name for the young shoot) — China. 
Hanagatsumi (flower- water-reed-fruit, i. e., the seed or grain) - 
Katsumi (water-reed -fruit, i. e., the seed or grain) — Japan. 
Makomo-no-mi (fruit of the water-reed, i. e., the seed or grain) 

Etymology of "Mano'min'* 

Of the American synonyms given above, the larger number follow 
the norm mano'min. This is the Algonquian word for wild rice, 
and it is chiefly through this term that the plant has influenced geo- 
graphical names in America. The word is a compound of the adjec- 
tive and adverbial form me-no, meaning " good, " "l'ight," "well," 
and of the noun form mm, meaning "berry." Me-no never changes 
its form in the language, but is used quite variously, as me-no 
au-ne-ne, "good man 1- '; me-no au-yaw, "he is getting well." This 
term and maw-tchi, or mau-tc/ii, meaning "bad," and used exactly 
as is me-no, are the most common adjectives in the Ottawa and Ojibwa 
languages. 1 The form min is used in a great many words which 
denote berry or fruit, as in au-zhaw-way-min (beechnut), ane-she-min 
(apple), shaw-bo-min, (gooseberry), me-daw-min (maize), and mis-kou- 
min (red raspberry). 2 Among the Algonquian tribes of New Eng- 
land, kinsmen of the Ottawa and Ojibwa Indians, mm or meen is the 
word for berry or maize, min being the general term for berry. 3 
Thus mano'min, the term by which wild rice first came to be known 
among the white settlers of the Northwest — the French at Green bay, 
Wisconsin — is the Algonquian word for the very suggestive and 
common-sense term "good berry," or "good fruit." The French 
named the plant folle avoine (wild oat, mad oat. or fool oat), and 
this term and its various faulty renditions are frequently applied to 

i See Wilson, Ojebwa Language, p. 21: Blackbird. History of the Ottawa, pp. Ill, 112. 
- Blackbird, op. cit., p. 122; see also Wilson and Baraga. 
3 Barratt, Indian of New England, p. 19. 



—Japan. 
— Japan. 



JENKSj 



POPULAR DESCRIPTION 



1025 



the plant in early accounts of the Northwest. Marquette once called it 
fausse avoine (false oat), and the Latin avena fatua was doubtless 
applied to the plant because of the term adopted by the French. It 
is difficult to say what the Siouan norm is, but probably it is psin, 
which is often followed by some slightly accented vowel, as in the 
word psina. 

Scientific Description 

The genus Zizania comprises two species, and is well characterized 
by the unisexual spikelets in an androgynous panicle, each having two 
glumes, and the males having two stamens. The plant ordinarily 
grows from 5 to 10 feet high, with a thick, spongy stem and an abun- 
dance of long, broad leaves. The chief mark of distinction between 
the two species is that the miliacea bears its male and female flowers 
intermixed on its fruit head, while the aquatica bears its female 
flowers near the top, where the cylindrical panicle, from 1 to 2 feet 
long, is quite appressed, and its male flowers on the more widely 
spread lower branches of the panicle. The glumes or husks of the 
female or fertile flowers are about an inch long and are armed with an 
awn or beard usually of about the same length as the husk, but at 
times of twice its length. The grain, which is inclosed within the 
glumes, is a slender cylindrical kernel, varying in length from almost 
half an inch to nearly an inch, and is of dark slate color when ripe. 
The plant is an annual, and grows in either fresh or brackish waters 
from a bed of mud alluvium. 

Popular Description 

Wild rice is one of the most beautiful aquatic single-stem plants in 
America. The grain is shed into the water when it ripens in the 
autumn, and lies in the soft ooze of alluvial mud at the bottom of a 
lake or river until spring, when it germinates and grows rapidly to 
the surface. Text-books have frequently called the plant perennial. 
The old stalks die down below the surface of the water before the 
time arrives for the new ones to appear, so the inference has been 
made that they all come from the same root; but the plant is an 
annual, growing from new seed each year. It was called a biennial by 
the Detroit Gazette December 24, 1820. 

Early in June the shoot appears at the surface of the water and at 
once begins to prepare its fruit head. At about this stage of its 
growth it has been described as follows: 

When seen from a distance, they [the rice beds] look like low green islands on the 
lakes; on passing through one of these rice beds when the rice is in flower, it has a 
beautiful appearance with its broad grassy leaves and light waving spikes, garnished 
with pale yellow green blossoms, delicately shaded with reddish purple, from 
beneath which fall three elegant straw-colored anthers, which move with every 
breath of air or slightest motion of the waters. 1 



1 Catherine Parr Traill, Backwoods of Canada, p. 237. 



1026 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



The plant blossoms in June, and by September the seeds are mature. 
The fruit heads are mostly of a pale green color with a tinge of yel- 
low, but at maturity the} T generally acquire a cast of purple. 1 Rice 
beds have been described as resembling fields of wheat, of canebrake, 
and of maize. At maturity the stalks range from 2 to 12 feet in 
height above the water, and they also vary much in thicknass. Their 
total length depends largely on the depth of the water in which they 
grow, as well as on the fertilit}- of the soil. 

This latter cause affects also the size and strength of the stem. The 
stalks are most frequently from 5 to 8 feet in length, but they are 
also found as long as 16 or 20 feet. They grow up through water 
varying from 12 inches to 10 or 12 feet in depth. Mr L. A. Paddock, 
of Grass lake, Lake county, Illinois, describes the plant in the most 
luxuriant growth which it is believed to acquire in America. His 
description is unique also in the fact that, at Grass lake, after the 
plant grows to the surface of the water, and until it is 2 or 3 feet long, 
it lies flat upon the surface. Then as each leaf enlarges and gains 
strength the stalk straightens up (others have said that if once the 
young shoot gets down onto the water, it can not possibly rise, but dies 
without fruitage). By the middle of July the stalks are about 8 feet, 
high. At that time from the center of each stalk a long slender shoot 
grows to the height of about -1 feet above the topmost leaf. This 
shoot bears the fruit head. The stalk grows an inch or more in diam- 
eter, and to the height of 10 or 12 feet above the water. It grows to 
this, its greatest height, in water 1 foot deep, but it will grow and 
mature in water 8 feet in depth, in which case it rises about 4 feet 
above the surface. The roots are so strong and matted that they will 
support the weight of a man walking upon the mass in shallow water. 2 

Natural Enemies 

An annual plant clearly seems to grow not for itself, but for its suc- 
cessors. Anything which destroys the seeds, even though they have 
reached maturity and are ready to grow, is as much an enemy of the 
species as though the parent plant had been destroyed. However, 
inasmuch as the plant may produce, say, a hundred offspring, the 
destruction of the plant before the maturity of its seeds may be a hun- 
dredfold more serious than the destruction of a mature seed. 

It will later be seen that the Indian, by his use of the wild-rice seed, 
is a great enenry of the plant, for it will be shown that the plant, unless 
it is artificially sown, is gradually being extinguished in such beds as 
are continually used. Waterfowl in countless numbers feed upon the 
grain at its maturity. In fact, it is so choice a food for duck, geese, 
teal, and other waterfowl that it is now quite frequently sown by gun 



1 Elliott Cones in Botanical Gazette, Dec, 1894, p. 506. 
- Paddock, letter, January 20, 1899. 



JEXKSj 



NATURAL ENEMIES 



1027 



clubs in mud-bottomed waters in hunting preserves to attract such 
fowl for shooting - . 1 

Many descriptions are given of clouds of blackbirds, redwing black- 
birds, and ricebirds which subsist on the grain during and immediately 
after its milk stage. 2 Rails, pigeons, quails, herons, cedar birds, wood- 
peckers, and many other birds also consume the grain by feeding from 
the heavy stalks. 3 

Caterpillars have been known to destroy an entire crop of wild rice 
in the neighborhood of Rainy river. 4 Mr Pither mentions a worm 
which eats into and destroys the grain in Manitoba, Canada. 5 This is 
probably the "maggot," which is the larva of the water weevil (Lis- 
sorhoptrus simplex). The "maggot" is a very small white legless grub; 
it destroys the plant by working in its roots, while a beetle, the 
water weevil just cited, eats the leaves of the plant. 6 

A fungus, Entyloma crastophihcm, Sacc.(?), works in the sheath of 
the grain, 7 while Claviceps sp. also works on the plant, 8 and in Japan 
the fungus Ustilago esculenta attacks the shoot. 9 

A fungus, Claviceps purpurea, occurs quite commonly on the grain 
in northern Wisconsin, where the Indians speak of it as "frozen 
rice." In its early stage it consists of a profuse growth of mycelium 
in the tissue and on the surface of the 3 r oung ovary. The product is 
a compact, horn-shape, dark body called the sclerotium, which occu- 
pies the position of the displaced ovary. The sclerotium lies dormant 
during the winter, and in the spring germinates by forming tiny 
spores which free themselves, and begin growth in the tissue and in 
the ovary, as is told above. 1 " 

Storms, frosts, and floods cause great, doubtless the greatest, dam- 
age to wild rice. 11 

1 See chapter vi for the consumption of wild rice by these game birds. 

2 The most common of these blackbirds, all of which are fond of wild rice, are the purple grackle 
( Qtiiscalus quiscula), the boat-tailed grackle ( Q. major), and the rusty grackle ( Scolecophagus rarolinus) . 
The redwing or swamp blackbird (Agelaius phamiceus) forms large migratory flocks in the autumn 
in all of the Northern states, and becomes very destructive to the grain. The ricebird, reedbird, or 
bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) is the natural bird enemy of wild rice, and is found in countless 
numbers in all — both brackish and fresh water — wild-rice marshes during the autumn. 

'■> Pither, letter, December 5, 189S: McKenney, Memoir, vol. II, p. 1C4; Hind, Narrative, vol. I,' p. 118. 
The sora rail (Porzana Carolina), the yellow rail (P. noveboracensis) , and the black rail {P. javiaicevsis) 
feed upon wild rice. The sora rail is especially common in fresh-water wild-rice marshes. For ref- 
erences to great numbers of waterfowl in Minnesota, see Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. I, pp. 180-187, 
vol. iv, pp. 193-194. For the waterfowl on Fox river, see Brown, Western Gazetteer, pp. 252,261; also 
Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, p. 183, and Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage, vol. I, p. 180. 

4 See chapter vi (page 1100). 

5 Pither, op. cit. 

°L. O. Howard, Insects Affecting the Rice Plant, in Rcpt. of the Commissioner of Agric. forlSSl and 
1882, Rept. of the Entomologist, pp. 127, 138. 

"Wm. Trelease, Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi, in Wis. Acad. Sci., Lit., and Arts, 
vol. vi, number 258; Madison, 1885, p. 139. 

"Ibid., number 66, p. 115. 

0 Matsumura, letter, December 16, 1898, with reference toHenning'sHedwigia, Band xxxiv, 1895, p. 10. 
•"Lucius E. Sayre, A Manual of Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy, etc.; Philadelphia, 
1895, p. 439. 

"See chapter vi. Very little scientific attention has been given to Zizania aquatica; consequently 
the present treatment of its enemies is scanty. Answers to letters of inquiry lead to the conclusion 
that more careful attention will be given it in the near future. 



Chapter II 



HABITAT 
Introduction 1 

Zizania aquatica grows in North America from about latitude 50° 
on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and from the Atlantic 
ocean to the Rocky mountains. In Manitoba it extends farther north- 
ward than 50° in the Winnipeg drainage, and in Ontario toward Hudson 
bay. It grows abundantly in the brackish, almost stagnant, waters of 
the Atlantic and Gulf states, and along the sloughs of Mississippi river 
from its headwaters as far south as the state of Mississippi; indeed 
it doubtless occurs along the entire course of this river. It fringes 
the north shore of Lake Ontario, the northwest, west, and southwest 
shores of Lake Erie, Georgian bay of Lake Huron, the shore of Lake 
Huron south of Georgian bay, St. Clair lake, and Green bay of Lake 
Michigan. Besides growing in these great waterways, it flourishes in 
countless small lakes, ponds, and streams in the eastern half of the 
United States. It is especially abundant in the region which this 
memoir designates the "wild-rice district." 2 In fact, the plant is 
quite common in the United States east of the Rocky mountains, and 
in Canada as far north as latitude 52°, in lakes, ponds, and slow-flowing 
streams which have an alluvial bed. Nowhere will it grow in water 
having a sand or clay bed, or in swiftly flowing streams. 

Habitat by States 

In this section is presented the wild-rice habitat in the various 
states so far as data could be collected (see plate lxvi). 

Alabama. Common in the middle section along streams (letter of 
P. H. Mell, Auburn, Alabama, May 1, 1899). 

1 In the preparation of this chapter text-books on botany have been of little or no assistance. They 
have very generally given the habitat of Zizania aquatica in such indefinite language as the follow- 
ing: " Common from Nova Scotia to Florida and west to Minnesota." For the material of this chap- 
ter correspondence has been conducted with college and university teachers of botany and with 
directors of experiment stations in most of the commonwealths of the United States and Canada. 
The effort has been to gather data from each section so that a fairly representative habitat may be 
described. Perhaps the most striking result of the investigation is that which shows how limited 
the knowledge of some of our economic plants is, and that, too, in states in which they are common. 
It is to be hoped that more attention will be given to a systematic study of our economic plants. 

Prof. J. W. Harshberger presents the following reasons for the study of ethno-botany, a term which 
well might be ethno-economic-botany: It aids in elucidating the culture-position of the tribes which 
used the plant; it helps in deciding the ancient tr idc routes: and it suggests new lines of manufac- 
ture to-day. — Harshberger, The Purposes of Ethno-botany, Botanical Gazette, March, 1896, p. ltti 
et seq. 

2 See chapter VI. This wild-rice district is Wisconsin (except its southwestern part) and a part of 
eastern Minnesota. 



1028 



JENKS] 



HABITAT BY STATES 



1029 



Arizona. Not known (letter of J. W. Tourney, Tucson, Arizona, 
December 7, 1898). 

Arkansas. Not in an extensive collection made by Prof. F. L. 
Harvey (letter of Jerome McNeill, Fayetteville, Arkansas, December 
21, 1898). Charles Pickering says (History of Plants, Boston, 1879, 
p. 772) that Nuttall observed it along the Arkansas river. It also 
occurs along the Mississippi. 

California. Not known (letter of J. Burt Davy, Berkeley, Califor- 
nia, December 6, 1898). 

Colorado. Not known ; it was twice introduced but failed to 
grow (letter of C. S. Crandall, Fort Collins, Colorado, December 12, 
1898). However, the Indians gathered it near Denver in 1872. 

Connecticut. Common near New Haven (letter of Alex. W. Evans, 
New Haven, Connecticut, January 3, 1899). It grows also in the 
brackish coastal marshes which are submerged most of the time, and 
also along Connecticut river, as at Essex. 

Delaware. Catalogued by Tatnall as being "very common" in 
"ditches and muddy banks of streams" in Newcastle county (letter of 
W. H. Bishop, Newark, Delaware, December 12, 1898). Featherston- 
haugh (A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor, London, 1847, vol. I, p. 
180) says it is very common near Newport. Lamson-Scribner (Useful 
and Ornamental Grasses, p. 95) asserts that it is abundant in Delaware 
river below Philadelphia, where it is always called "the reeds." 

District of Columbia. Abundant along the Potomac, covering 
areas of many acres (letter of F. Lamson-Scribner, Washington, April 
25, 1899). 

Florida. Very abundant. It occurs in deep ponds in Columbia 
and Suwannee counties. "1 think I have also seen it in Orange, Lake, 
and Sumter counties, together with several others " (letter of P. H. 
Rolfs, biologist and horticulturist, Florida Agricultural College and 
Experiment Station, Lake City, Florida, December 10, 1898). Picker- 
ing (op. cit., p. 771) says that Pursh received a specimen of the plant 
from Florida. MacCauley (Seminole Indians of Florida, in Fifth 
Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, p. 504) says that the Seminole 
Indians gather in the swamps all the rice they need. 

Georgia. Grows in Clark county and elsewhere in small quanti- 
ties (letter of John P. Campbell, Athens, Georgia, April 13, 1899). 

Idaho. Not known, and probably not found west of the Rocky 
mountains (letter of L. F. Henderson, Moscow, Idaho, December 11, 
1898). 

Illinois. Quite common in Carroll county, Bluff lake in Union 
county, and in ponds formed by Illinois river in Peoria and Fulton 
counties (letter of G. P. Clinton, Urbana, Illinois, May 3, 1899). It 
is also very abundant (one thousand acres) in Grass lake, Lake county 
(letter of L. A. Paddock, Grass lake, Lake county, Illinois, January 



1030 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



20, 1899). It also grows plentifully in sloughs of the Mississippi and 
in small streams in Jo Daviess county. 

Indiana. Found in Gibson, Monroe, and La Porte counties. 

Indian Territory. Not known (letter of A. Grant Evans, Mus- 
cogee, Indian Territory, April 25, 1899). 

Iowa. Common, especially in the northern and central parts. It 
has been collected in Emmet, Scott, Delaware, Clinton, Linn. Hum- 
boldt, Johnson, Louisa, Hancock, Wright, Story, and Fayette coun- 
ties (letter of B. Shimek, Iowa City, Iowa, December, 1898). 

Kansas. Not known (letter of A. S. Hitchcock, Manhattan, 
Kansas, April 24, 1899). 

Kentucky. Grows in lakes in the "barrens"' in the western part 
of the state (letter of C. W. Mathews, Lexington, Kentucky, 
December 15, 1898). 

Louisiana. "Occurs plentifully in all the lower counties" (let- 
ter of George E. Beyer, New Orleans, Louisiana, December 19, 1898; 
also letter of A. B. Langlois, St Martinville, Louisiana, November 21, 

1898) . 

Maine. Abundant in Aroostook county in the Mattawamkeag river 
system; very abundant in the Penobscot river system above tidewater. 
It is also abundant in Kennebec county on Messalonskee river and 
other tributaries of the Kennebec, and it is found in Franklin county 
along Sandy river. "Doubtless the plant is common in other waters 
in central Maine" (letter of M. L. Fernald, Gray Herbarium, 
Cambridge, Massachusetts). 

Maryland. Abundant in Anne Arundel county, and probably in 
other counties bordering on Chesapeake bay (letter of N. W. Bar- 
ton, Baltimore, Maryland, about December 10, 1898). 

Massachusetts. Rather common in many streams and ponds in 
eastern Massachusetts, in at least Essex, Middlesex, and Norfolk coun- 
ties. It is found also in Connecticut river at Northampton, in Hamp- 
shire county (letter of M. L. Fernald, Gray Herbarium, Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts, December 12, 1898). 

Michigan. Found throughout the state in mud-bottomed lakes and 
sluggish streams; also found commonly in Grand river valley (let- 
ter of C. F. Wheeler, Michigan Agricultural College post-office, Mich- 
igan). It is found also in Huron river, Washtenaw county (letter 
of F. C. Newcombe, Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 9, 1898). The 
plant is also very abundant in St Joseph river in southwestern Michi- 
gan, and is found also in various streams and small alluvial lakes in 
Kalamazoo and Barry counties. 

Minnesota. See the "Wild-rice District," in the present chapter, 
pages 1033-1036. 

Mississippi. Common in the extreme southern part of the state 
(letter of S. M. Tracy, Agricultural College, Mississippi, January 0, 

1899) . It is found also along Mississippi river. 



JENKS] 



HABITAT BY STATES 



1031 



Missouri. No data through correspondence. 

Montana. Not known (letter of J. W. Blankinship, Bozeman, 
Montana, December 12, 1898). 

Nebraska. Grows throughout the state (letter of Charles E. 
Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska, December 9, 1898). It also occurs in 
swamps in the sand hills near Whitman, Grant county (Dept. of 
Agric. , Div. of Botany, U. S. Nat. Herbarium, vol. Hi, p. 187). 

Nevada. Not known (letter of Marcus E. Jones, Salt Lake City, 
Utah, December 23, 1898). 

New Hampshire. Found in Androscoggin river (letter of Henry 
C. Jessup, Hanover, New Hamphire, December 13, 1898). 

New Jersey. "Common in most districts," in lakes and ponds and 
tidal waters, especially in Delaware river (letter of G. Macloskie, 
Princeton, New Jersey, December 15, 1898). A fossil grass with a 
broad leaf was discovered in the Yellow Gravel at Bridgeton, which 
Dr N. L. Britton, of New York City, says perhaps is Zizcmia (Trans- 
actions N. Y. Academ} r of Sciences, November 24, 1884, p. 31; also 
Proceedings Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. . vol. xxxi, 1882, p. 359). 

New Mexico. Not known (letter of E. O. Wooton, Mesilla Park, 
New Mexico, December 22, 1898). 

New York. It was collected in large quantities by the Seneca and 
other Indians in 1870. 

North Carolina. Common in low and submerged districts (let- 
ter of H. V. Wilson, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, February 15, 1899). 
Notes on Grasses and Forage Plants of the Southern States (U. S. 
Dept. of Agric, Div. of Agros., Bull. 1, 1895, p. 31) says it grows 
near Wilmington, New Hanover county; see also Gerald McCarty in 
Botanical Gazette, vol. x, 1885, p. 385. 

North Dakota. Grows in Ramsey and Benson counties in Sweet- 
water lake and in Twin lake, where it is very abundant, and also in 
Devils lake (letter of Melvin A. Brannon, Grand Forks, North 
Dakota, December 10, 1898), Coues (New Light on the Greater 
Northwest, vol. i, p. 138) says that in 1800 wild rice was plentiful in 
a marais (now Morse's slough) at Washville, Walsh county. It is 
also quite plentiful in the Dakotas, east of the Mississippi. It is often 
so abundant in Sioux river as to cover the entire bed for long dis- 
tances (Grasses and Forage Plants of the Dakotas, IT. S. Dept. of 
Agric, Div. of Agros., Bull. 6, p. 17). 

Ohio. Grows in the state as far south as 40 miles below Columbus, 
and is also reported from Cincinnati in the catalog of Joseph F. 
James (letter of W. E. Kellerman, Columbus, Ohio, May 18, 1899). 
It grows also in the shallow waters of Lake Erie. 

Oregon. Not known (letter of E. R. Lake, Corvallis, Oregon, 
December 30, 1898). 

Pennsylvania. Abundant along Delaware river _and its tribu- 
taries, but probably does not extend far inland (letter of John R. 



1032 



WILD KICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eih.akn.-19 



Macfarlane, Philadelphia, December 12. 1898). It is reported in 
Brandy-wine river, in Chester county, by Flora Cestrica, p. 93, edited 
in Westchester. Pennsylvania, 1837. Thomas C. Porter (A List of 
the Grasses of Penns}dvania, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 
vol. xx. 1893, p. 197) savs that it grows in Lancaster county above 
Shocks Mill. 

Rhode Island. Occurs in Providence county (letter of J. Frank- 
lin Collins, Providence, Rhode Island, May 4, 1899). 

South Carolina. No data through correspondence. 

South Dakota. Abundant in streams tributary to Sioux, James, 
and Little Minnesota rivers, and throughout eastern South Dakota 
(letter of D. W. Saunders, Brookings, South Dakota, January 4, 
1899; see also Grasses and Forage Plants of the Dakotas, IT. S. Dept. 
of Agric, Div. of Agros., Bull. 6, p. 17). It is also reported from 
Huron, Tacoma, Brookings, and Sioux Falls counties. 

Tennessee. Not known (letters of Samuel McBain, Knoxville, 
Tennessee, December 9, 1898, and November 27, 1899). 

Texas. "Grows in Texas, presumably in south and east Texas, 
abundantly" (letter of William M. Bray, Austin, Texas, December 
13, 1898). Coulter (Dept. of Agric, Div. of Bot, U. S. Nat. Her- 
barium, vol. i, p. 55) says that it is found in the region of the Rio 
Grande "between Brazos Santiago, and El Paso county." 

Utah. Not known (letter of O. Howard, Salt Lake Citj-, Utah. 
December 13, 1898). 

Vermont. Grows in abundance in Lake Champlain valley in at 
least Franklin, Chittenden, Addison, Rutland, and Grand Isle counties 
(letter of L. R. Jones, Burlington, Vermont, December 27, 1898). 

Virginia. Not known in the Allegheny or Piedmont regions, but 
is found in the Potomac flats (letter of A. H. Tuttle, Charlottesville, 
Virginia, January 17, 1899). 

Washington. No data through correspondence. 

West Virginia. Not known (letter of W. E. Rumsey, Morgan- 
town, West Virginia, December 17, 1898). 

Wisconsin. See the "Wild-rice District," in the present chapter. 

Wyoming. Not known (letter of Aven Nelson, Laramie, Wyo- 
ming, December 12, 1898). 

During the first quarter of the nineteenth centuiy wild rice grew 
quite extensively in that expanse of the United States lying between 
the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains. 1 

1 Mr John Dunn Hunter was a captive from childhood to young manhood among the Osage Indians, 
and during the first quarter of the nineteenth century roamed over "the Missouri and Arkansas 
country," which he describes as being " bounded on the east by the state of Missouri and Mississippi 
river; north by the British dominions; west by the Rocky mountains; and south by the Arkansas 
river and territories of the Mexican empire" (Hunter, Memoirs of a Captivity, pp. 137, 13S). He classi- 
fies the lands of this extensive territory under five heads, as follows: (1) Alluvial or river bottom, (2) 
fertile prairies, (3) hills, (4) morasses or swamps, (5) barrens or sterile prairies. He says of the 
me >rasscs or swamps, " In general they afford the wild rice, from which, after the buffaloes and other 
grazing animals have tramped over it, the Indians collect their supplies" (ibid., p. 142). 



JENKS] 



HABTTAT IN WILD-RICE DISTRICT 



1033 



Thus it will be seen that Zizania aquatica occurs in all the common- 
wealths of the United States, so far as ascertained by correspondence, 
except in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Indian Territory, 
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Tennessee, Utah, West Vir- 
ginia, and Wyoming. Most of these states lie in or west of the Rocky 
mountains. It is believed that the plant grows in both West Virginia 
and Tennessee, but it has not yet been reported. 

There are three states from which no data have been collected, viz, 
Missouri, South Carolina, and Washington. It is believed that the 
plant grows in the former two. 

Habitat in the Wild-rice District 

Wherever the last glacier left little mud-bottomed, water-filled hol- 
lows, there wild rice has established itself, if other conditions are 
favorable. Such ponds and lakes are characteristic of the alluvial 
apron spread out over Wisconsin and Minnesota. In 1817 the interior 
of Wisconsin is spoken of as watered with innumerable small lakes 
and ponds which generally abound with folle avoine [wild rice], water- 
fowl, and fish, each in such prodigious quantities that the Indians are 
in a manner exempt from the contingence of famine. 1 

Within the wild-rice district sluggish streams and quiet bends in the 
rivers and creeks also produce wild rice, provided the bed is mud 
alluvium. The grain has followed the stream toward its mouth, the 
waterfowl has sown it in its flight, and the Indian has carried it to his 
favorite lakes and streams, until to-day it is safe to say that the grain 
is found wherever in these two states there is suitable soil (see plate 
lxvii a). 

Before the middle of the seventeenth century wild rice was reported 
as the staple food of the Menomini Indians, and as being very plentiful 
on what is now Menomini river, the boundary between Wisconsin and 
the upper peninsula of Michigan. Indian tradition first speaks of the 
grain as being found in this stream, and from here as a starting place 
the present memoir will follow the plant along the various waterways 
of the wild-rice district. Green bay, from above the mouth of 
Menomini river southward to the bay -head, has been fringed with the 
plant from earliest historic times, and to-day there are thousands of 
acres of wild rice in the shallows of its waters. Most of the streams 
which discharge into it — all of those which are suitable — bear the grain 
abundantly. Fox river, from Lake Winnebago to its source, has been 
reported as filled with wild rice from the time of Marquette, who spoke 
of it in 1673 as follows: "The way is so cut up by marshes and little 
lakes that it is easy to go astray, especially as the river is so covered 
with wild oats that one can hardly discover the channel." 2 Carver, in 



1 Samuel R. Brown, Western Gazetteer, p. 252. 

- Quoted by Thwaites in Historic Waterways, Chicago, 1888, pp. 156, 157. 



1034 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



1767, wrote, "in fome places it is with difficult}' that canoes can pafs, 
through the obftructions they meet with from the rice ftalks, which 
are very large and thick." 1 Featherstonhaugh wrote, in 1847, that 
near Fort Winnebago there were several thousand acres of wild rice. 
He estimated the fields as at least 5 miles long and 2 miles wide. 2 He 
said that on Fox river they were obliged to stop paddling and "all 
took to warping the canoe through by hauling upon the tall stalks." 3 
In 1888 a writer stated that north of the portage of the Fox and Wis- 
consin rivers, "as far as the eye can reach, there is a stretch of 
wild-rice swamp." 4 

Fox river illustrates well the influence of the current upon the exist- 
ence of wild rice. From the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin 
rivers to Lake Winnebago, Fox river is 101 miles long, with a total fall 
of only 40 feet, and, as has been seen, it is filled with the plant. On the 
other hand, from lake Winnebago to Green bay, where the stream is 
only 37^ miles long, with a fall of 170 feet, the plant does not flourish. 

Wild rice is found along Wisconsin river even below the portage 
just referred to, 5 while the headwaters of the Wisconsin are often dense 
wild-rice beds. Wolf river and its tributaries also grow the plant. 

The upper waters of the Red Cedar, Chippewa, and St Croix rivers 
are filled with the growth, and it is from this supply that the Ojibwa 
Indians of Lac Courte Oreille reservation gather their annual crop 6 
(see plate lxvii h). In speaking of the Menomini, Wolf, Fox, Wiscon- 
sin, Red Cedar, Chippewa, and St Croix rivers and systems, it must 
be remembered that the various lakes, ponds, and streams in all this 
section of country are considered. 

Although Dr Jedidiah Morse 7 reported in 1822 that wild rice did 
not grow within 150 miles of Lake Superior on the south, yet it is 
now annually gathered in many of the streams flowing into Lake 
Superior from this region, and in 1860 J. G. Kohl stated that "the 
plant is very prevalent in the southern part of the lake [Lake 
Superior].' 18 

The headwaters of Mississippi river in Minnesota are in the heart 
of the Minnesota rice fields. 9 The regions about Mille Lacs, Leech 
lake, Sandy lake, Gull lake, and Lake Winnibigoshish, all draining 
into the Mississippi, are abundantly supplied with wild rice. 10 Maps 

1 Carver, Travels, p. 38; see also p. 536. Brown, Western Gazetteer, p. 261. Coues, Pike, vol. r, p. 302. 

2 Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage, vol. I, p. 184. 
s Ibid., p. 190. 

4 Thwaites, op. eit., p. 145; see also Edward Tanner in Detroit Gazette, January 15, 1819. 
5 Atwater, Indians, p. 181 . 

6 Mrs Ellet, Summer Rambles, pp. 151, 152; also Schoolcraft, Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes, pp. 
369, 373, 380, 383,385; Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, appendix, p. 543; Carver, Travels, p. 533; also 
Report, of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1S50, p. 54. 

7 Morse, Report, appendix, p. 30. 
s Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, pp. 117-118. 

'■'Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. iv, pp. 193-194: also Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, pp. 134, 235, 
239,249. 

'"Hennepin, Xouvelle Dccouverte, p. 313* (fol.0*4). See also Indian Affairs Report, 1850, pp. 56,61; 
Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. i, pp. 186-187. 



JENKS] 



HABITAT IN WILD-RICE DISTRICT 



1035 



of fifty years ago present a "Great Rice M[arsh]" as extending along 
Minnesota river (then generally represented as the St Peters) from its 
juncture with the Mississippi at St Paul up as far as Beaver falls in 
Renville county, Minnesota; 1 and Carver said of this country in 1767, 
"Wild rice grows here in great abundance." 

Lakes and streams draining into Red river of the North, between 
Minnesota and Dakota, are also Minnesota wild-rice fields. 2 One of 
these streams is Wild Rice river, which has its source in two lakes 
bearing the name Rice, which also lie in Minnesota. Another is 
Pse river, whose source is in the Dakotas. Farther north, the lakes 
and streams emptying into Lake of the Woods, Rainy lake, and 
the Winnipeg system in general, are mainly wild rice producing 
waters. 3 Mackenzie said in 1801: 

Yaft quantities of wild rice are feen throughout the country [from Lake Superior 
to Lake Winnipeg] , which the natives collect in the month of Auguft for their winter 
f tores. 4 

Seymour wrote of Lake of the Woods, in 1850: 

The indentations of its rocky, moss-covered shores are full of the wild rice, which 
is annually collected in large quantities by the Indians. 5 

Farther south the St Louis river system tells the same tale — the 
streams all bear abundant stores of wild rice. 6 In 1883 the plant was 
reported from Minnesota as being " common, or frequent, in favorable 
situations throughout the State; sometimes attaining, in Brown county, 
a height of 13 feet, with leaves 1 feet long.' 17 Chapter vn of the 
present memoir *till further aims to show the extent of wild rice, 
where Indian production was carried on, as exhibited by its influence 
on geographic names. 

Some idea of the prevalence of wild rice in the lakes of this district 
may be obtained from the following characteristic quotations: 

The Indians around Sandy lake [Aitkin county, Minnesota], in the month of 
September, repair to Rice lake, to gather their rice. In no other place does it grow 
in as large quantities as there. This lake is about 5 miles long and 3 broad. It 
might, perhaps, be called a Marrais, for the water is not over 5 feet deep, and its 
surface is almost entirely covered with rice. It is only in morasses, or muddy bottoms 
that this grain is found. 8 

Warren writes of Mille Lacs in 1852, that it is a circular lake about 
20 miles across and abundantly stocked with fish. Connected with it 

1 Map accompanying Carver's Travels. See also Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. n,p. 97. 
- Lord Selkirk's Settlement in North America, p. 120. See also Western Journal, May, June. July, 
August, vol. ii, number 5, 1849; Keating, Narrative, vol it, p. 37. 

3 Harmon, Journal, pp. 41, 45, 142. See also McMillan, Observations on the Distribution of Plants 
along shore at Lake of the Woods, pp. 949-1023, in Minn. Bot. Studies, Bull. 9, parts 10 and 11, p. 994; 
Hind, Narrative, pp. 96, 97, 115, 116, 118. 

4 Mackenzie, Voyages, pp. 61, 62. 

6 Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, p. 233. 

"Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, p. 112; also Indian Affairs Report, 1891, vol. i, p. 471. 
1 Upham, Catalogue of the Flora of Minnesota, p. 159. 
8 Edward Tanner, Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 



1036 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. ann. 19 



is a string of marshy or muddy -bottomed lakes in which the water is 
but a few feet deep, and wherein the wild rice grows luxuriantly. 
"Possessing these and other advantages,''' he says, "there is not a spot 
in the northwest which an Indian would sooner choose as a dwelling 
place than Mille Lacs." 1 

Jefferson Davis wrote, in 1885, that in 1829 in the country about 
"Tay-cho-pe-rah," "The four lakes county, " i. e., Madison and its 
vicinity, in Wisconsin, "the Indians subsisted largely on Indian corn 
and wild rice." 2 In 1816 the grain was gathered in Rock river, 
Wisconsin, and chapter vn will show that the plant existed throughout 
the southeastern part of the State. 

A general view of wild rice in Wisconsin and Minnesota was given 
b}^ Upham in 1883, who quotes as follows: 

Wild rice . . . acquires in the Northwest an economical importance second to no 
other spontaneous production. It is the only instance in this region of a native 
grain, occurring in sufficient quantity to supply the wants of ordinary consumption. 
It is particularly abundant on the lake-like expansions of rivers, toward their 
sources, which give such a marked feature to the distribution of these northern 
streams, and is so grandly illustrated in their main type, the Mississippi. It seems to 
select, by preference, the lower terminations of these expansions, which generally 
debouch by a narrowed outlet and considerable fall, constituting rapids ... It is 
rarely met with on inland lakes which have no outlet. 3 

This section has shown that most of Wisconsin and the northern 
half of Minnesota bore wild rice so abundantly that the Indian popu- 
lation depended very largely upon it for food. This ' ' wild-rice dis- 
trict," as considered in chapter vi, includes Wisconsin, excepting the 
southwestern part, and that part of Minnesota lying east of Missis- 
sippi river. This boundary is fixed almost arbitrarily, the only rea- 
sons being that more accurate statistics of Indian population, and a 
more precise knowledge of Indian food conditions, were here obtainable 
than for the territory west of the Mississippi, which consequently is 
left out of consideration, though it has abundant wild-rice fields. 

This -view of the habitat within the wild-rice district shows that 
no other section of the North American continent was so characteris- 
tically an Indian paradise, so far as a spontaneous vegetal food is con- 
cerned, as was this territory in Wisconsin and Minnesota. 

Foreign Habitat 

Immediately north of the states of Wisconsin and Minnesota, in 
Canada, the entire system of waterways, extending from Grand Port- 
age of Lake Superior through the Winnipeg system, produces wild 
rice abundantly. Still farther north and east there are lakes in 
which John Long reported the grain one hundred and fifty years 



1 Warren, History Of the Ojibwa, p. 156. 

2 Butler, Tay-cho-pe-rah, in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. x (1888-1880), p. 75. 

3 Upham, Catalogue of the Flora of Minnesota, p. 159. 



JENKS] 



FOREIGN HABITAT 



1037 



ago. He said that Lake Monontoye "abounds with excellent fish and 
wild fowl; and oats, rice, and cranberries grow spontaneously in the 
swamps." 1 Of Red lake (Misqui Sakiegan) Long said, "Fish is 
caught here in great abundance, and wild rice grows in very great 
plenty in the swamps." 2 In speaking of Weed lake (Lake Scha- 
beeehevan) he further says, ' ' The swamps are full of wild rice and 
cranberries." 3 In Ontario wild rice grows in immense beds along 
the shore of Lake Ontario, being very abundant in Quinto bay. It 
grows also along Lake Erie, and along the shore of Lake Huron, 
especially on the shore of Georgian bay. 4 It is plentiful also in that 
triangular section of Ontario roughly bounded by lakes Huron, Erie, 
and Ontario, and Ottawa river. Special reference has been made to 
it in the region of Lake Simcoe and Rice lake between Quinto bay 
and Georgian bay. 5 

Wild rice is reported as growing in New Brunswick and Newfound- 
land. 0 The seed has also been planted in England, where Sir Joseph 
Banks introduced it from Canada, in 1790. In 1819 it was still grow- 
ing at his villa, Spring Grove. 7 It was also planted at Lincolnshire, 
with the intention of popularizing it as a food for the poor, but it 
failed. 8 The plant is said to be found in Jamaica, and it is further 
reported from the eastern part of Siberia 9 and from eastern Russia, 
where it is called Zizania latifolia. 10 These last two references prob- 
ably refer to the same country. In Japan the plant is very common, 
extending from the island of Yezo, in the north, to Shikoku and 
Kiushiu, in the south, its total habitat thus reaching from 31° to 41° 
north latitude. It also thrives in eastern China and on the island of 
Formosa. 11 So far as is known the plant is nowhere reported as native 
in Europe, Africa, Australia, or South America. 

1 Long, Voyages, p. 76. 

2 Ibid., p. 81. 

3 Ibid., p. 108. 

4 Kohl, Travels, vol. II, p. 46, et seq. See also CannifE, History of the Settlement of Upper Canada, pp. 
587-588; Newberry, Food and Fiber Plants of the North American Indians, Popular Science Monthly, 
vol. XXXII, p. 40. 

5 Kohl, op. cit., vol. Ii, p. 46, et seq. See also Flint, History and Geography, vol. II, p. 134; Copway, Life 
of Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh, p. 65. 

6 Mac Kay, Letter, Halifax, May 1, 1899. 

7 Cyclopedia or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Science, and Literature, vol. xxxix. 
8 Smith, Dictionary of Economic Plants, p. 83. 

°Vasey, The Agricultural grasses of the United States, Dept. of Agriculture, Bot. Div., Spec. Bull. 
1889, p. 47. 

10 Bentham, Notes on Gramineae, pp. 14-134, in Jour. Linn. Soc, vol. xix, Botany, 1882, p. 54. 
11 Letter of J. Matsumura, Tokyo, Japan, December 16, 1898. 

19 ETH, PT 2 31 



Chapter III 



INDIANS 1 
The Ojibwa 

In the region of the upper lakes the wild rice producing Indians are 
of two great linguistic stocks, the Algonquian and the Siouan. Of 
the Algonquian stock the Ojibwa, Menomini, Sauk, Fox, Ottawa, 
Potawatomi, Maskotin, and Kickapoo tribes will be considered, while 
of the Siouan stock, attention will be devoted to the Dakota, Winne- 
bago, and Assiniboin tribes. A small number of refugee Huron and 
Petun Indians of the Iroquoian stock were within this territory at one 
time. 

When one considers their fierceness, numbers, and extensive habitat, 
the Ojibwa (usualby called Chippewa) and the Dakota (generally desig- 
nated Sioux) are the most important of all of the Indians within the 
wild-rice area. These two tribes have been enemies and friends suc- 
cessively from historic times until 1862, when the Dakota were 
removed from Minnesota. 

Even previous to the records of written history, native tradition 
paints a picture of almost constant struggle between the Ojibwa and 
Dakota Indians for the conquest and retention of the territory includ- 
ing the rich wild-rice fields. Schoolcraft wrote in 1831: 

A country more valuable to a population having the habits of our northwestern 
Indians could hardly be conceived of; and it is therefore cause of less surprise that 
its possession should have been so long an object of contention between the Chippe- 
was and Sioux. 2 

The same author further spoke of this region as follows: 
It has been noted, from the first settlement of Canada, as abounding in the small 
furred animals, whose skins are valuable in commerce. Its sources of supply to the 
native tribes have been important. It has, at the same time, had another singular 
advantage to them from the abundance of the grain called monomin, or rice, by the 
Chippewa Indians, and Psin by the Sioux. 3 

Mr W. W. Warren presented many facts pertaining to the subject in 
his valuable work, History of the Ojibways, Based upon Tradition and 
Oral Statements. 

'Many facts concerning the production and consumption of wild rice by the Indians in the wild- 
rice district must be considered later in chapter VI, which treats of the general social and economic 
interpretations. This present chapter seeks only to locate the wild rice producing Indians, giving 
their migrations and population. 

8 Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, p. 544. 

3 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 187. 

1038 



JUNKS] 



THE OJIBWA 



1039 



Indian traditions, such as are recited in the so-called Grand Medi- 
cine Society of the Ojibwa, contain much of Indian tribal history. 
The student will be impressed with the accuracy of Ojibwa traditions, 
as presented by Mr Warren, when dates are mentioned which authentic 
written history can confirm. 1 That authority states that, according to 
their traditions, the Ojibwa dwelt on the Atlantic coast north of St 
Lawrence river about five hundred years ago. At that time they 
started westward, stopping for a considerable period on the St Law- 
rence near the present Montreal, again on Lake Huron, then at Sault 
Ste Marie, and finally at La Pointe, Wisconsin, and possibly also at 
Fond du Lac, Lake Superior, as one of their traditions includes this 
latter as a stopping place. 

It is not known what name the Ojibwa bore before they reached 
Michilimackinac, where, from natural causes, they split into three great 
sections. One section remained near the point of separation — these 
are the Ottawa, " Ot-tah-way," or "Traders." The second, the Pota- 
watomi, "Potta-wat-um-ees," or "Those-who-make-or-keep-a-fixe," 
moved up Lake Michigan and for a time kept alive the sacred national 
fire. The third division, the Ojibwa, or "To-roast-till-puckered-up," 
stopped at Sault Ste Marie for a long period after the separation. They 
made war against the Iroquois in the east, whom they called " Naud-o- 
waig," and against the Sioux [Dakota] in the west, whom they called 
" Naud-o-wa-se-wug. " Naud-o-waig lite rail}' means " Like-unto-the 
adders," and is thus an Ojibwa tribute to the deadly warlike spirit of 
both these tribes. 

During a considerable part of the westward migration of the tribal 
ancestors of the Ottawa, Potawatomi, and Ojibwa Indians, it is doubt- 
less true that they were driven in that direction b}^ the fierce Iroquois. 
But since the division of the parent tribe, the Ojibwa, in their continued 
westward migration, have been mainly fierce aggressors. Some of them 
remained at Sault Ste Marie and in time became a village. These were 
the first Ojibwa with whom the French came in contact, and because of 
the situation of this village the French called all of the Ojibwa Indians 
"Saulteaux." The remainder of the tribe split again, however, and 
continued westward. One branch, the Saulteaux, passed north of 
Lake Superior even to Rainy lake, and formed a lasting peace with the 

1 Mr Warren says that the Ojibwa Indians first became acquainted with the white man about the 
year 1612 (op. cit, p. 90). Dr Neill has shown from printed records that Stephen Brule, one of the 
reckless and enterprising voyageurs under Champlain, appears to have been the first white man who 
brought to Quebec, about 1618, a description of Lake Superior, as well as a specimen of its copper; and 
further, Lake Superior is first shown on a map by Champlain in 1632. It is probable that the Ojibwa 
Indians were the ones with whom Brule came in contact on Lake Superior at that time (see Neill, 
in Minn. Hist. Colls., vol. v., pp. 399-105). Again, Warren fixes the date of the treaty between the 
Ojibwa and the Dakota, after the former had driven the Dakota from the rice lakes of St Croix 
river, at about the year 1695. Warren's editor calls attention to the fact that La Harpe wrote that 
Le Sueur in 1695 built a fort on an island in the Mississippi about 200 leagues above Illinois river in 
order to effect a treaty between the Sauteurs (Ojibwa) and the Sioux (Dakota) (Warren, op. cit., p. 
163 and note). 



1040 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [etTh.ann.19 



Assiniboin and the Kinisteno or Cree, and from there joined their 
southern kinsmen against the latter's enemies, the Dakota. The second 
or southern division, after leaving Sault Ste Marie, pushed westward 
along the south shore of Lake Superior, stopping temporarily at 
Grand island, L'Anse, and finally at " Shaug-ah-waum-ik-ong " or 
Chequamegon bay. 

Warren says that it was while the Ojibwa were still at Sault Ste 
Marie that they and the Dakota first met, as is seen in the name which 
the latter gave the Ojibwa — " Ra-ra-to-oans," or "The-people-of-the- 
falls." In all this westward movement south of Lake Superior the* 
Ojibwa were surrounded by the fierce " O-dug-aum-eeg," or "Opposite- 
side people" (the Fox Indians), and also by the Dakota, who claimed 
the southern and western sides of the lake. Every foot of ground was 
valiantly contested, until at last the invaders halted near La Pointe, 
where they were compelled to seek safety on La Pointe island. It is 
clear, from Indian tradition, and the evidence seems trustworthy, 1 that 
it was about three hundred and sixty years previous to 1852, the year 
in which Warren wrote, that the Ojibwa assembled on La Pointe 
island. This would be about 1492. There they built a village and 
cultivated extensive gardens of pumpkins and maize. They also occa- 
sionally hunted on the mainland along the headwaters of St Croix 
river. They lived about a hundred and twent}^ years on La Pointe 
island, from which, after a signal victory over a war party from both 
of their western enemies, the Dakota and the Fox, they gained a last 
ing foothold on the mainland and spread to the south and west. 
From early in the seventeenth century they had ascended St Law- 
rence river with canoe loads of furs for the French. Then they 
acquired firearms and the primitive man's craving for strong drink, 
and learned the exchange value of peltries in satisfying their new 
wants; with a force at once rapid and irresistible they plunged into 
the land of small lakes to the south and west, where the small 
furred animals were the most abundant. They destroyed the Fox 
villages about the headwaters of the St Croix and forced the inhabit- 
ants to desert their rice lakes in the midland countiy between St 
Croix and Chippewa rivers, the ejected people fleeing to Wisconsin 
river. The invading Ojibwa also planted a village on an island at 
the mouth of St Louis river at Fond du Lac. Warren places the 
date of these inland movements between the years 1612 and 1671. In 
1746 the Fox Indians again incurred the hatred of the Ojibwa, who, 
with the assistance of the French, dislodged them from Wisconsin 
river and Lake Michigan, and drove them to the Mississippi. 

The Dakota of Mdewaka" ("Spirit lake," Mille Lacs), were at 
peace with the Ojibwa of Fond du Lac, but having treacherously 



1 Warren, op. cit., pp. 89-90. 



JENKS] 



THE OJIBWA 



1041 



murdered some of the Ojibwa from that village, they were driven from 
Mille Lacs by the united Ojibwa tribe. Immediately thereafter the 
Ojibwa began to force the Dakota from the rice lakes of St Croix river 
region, which they had long occupied in conjunction with the Fox 
Indians. In 1695 Le Sueur effected peace between the Ojibwa and the 
Dakota of the St Croix, who at that time lived near together and even 
intermarried. The Ojibwa chose Rice lake at the head of Shell river, 
which is a tributary of the St Croix, as their permanent settlement in 
the newly acquired territory, and it was still an Ojibwa village in 1852. 1 

Fish are very plentiful in all of the lakes about the sources of the 
Mississippi. The country also affords birch bark and maple sugar abun- 
dantly, and "in man}* - of these lakes, which lie clustered together within 
an area of several hundred miles, the wild rice grows in large quanti- 
ties and most luxuriantly, affording the Indian an important staple of 
subsistence." 2 After the conquest of the Mille Lacs and St Croix 
region the Ojibwa drove the Dakota from Sandy lake, Aitkin county, 
Minnesota, and made there a permanent settlement. It was subse- 
quently from this point, as before it was from Chequamegon bay, that 
the Ojibwa war parties started which eventually drove the Dakota from 
their favorite homes at Leech, Winnipeg, Cass, and Red lakes, as well 
as from Gull lake, Crow Wing, and the vicing of Mille Lacs. The 
Dakota made their last determined stand upon the islands of Leech 
lake, but finally withdrew to the edge of the western prairies between 
the sources of Minnesota river and Red river of the North. By the 
year 1783 the Ojibwa were occupying Sandy, Leech, and Red lakes, 
and there was not a Dakota village above the Falls of St Anthony and 
east of the Mississippi. 3 

The first permanent Ojibwa settlement on Ottawa lake, the site of 
the present Lac Courte Oreille reservation, was made about the year 
1745. From there new villages were at length made at Lac Chetac, 
Red Cedar lake, Long lake, and " Puk-wa-wanuh on Chippeway river." 
At about the time that the Fox Indians were driven from Wisconsin 
river, the Ojibwa began to occupy this latter territory, their chief village 
being established at " Waus-wag-im-ing " (Torch lake, Lac du Flam- 
beau). From here they spread down the Wisconsin as far as the mouth 
of Fox river, and toward the east as far as Pelican lake. From these 
various places, during the last hundred years, they have spread over the 
remainder of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, fighting- with remnants 
of the Fox, Dakota, and Winnebago tribes at each advancing step. In 
the latter part of the eighteenth century the two bands of the Ojibwa — 
the Lac Courte Oreille and Lac du Flambeau — on the sources of Chip- 
peway and Wisconsin rivers, respectively, numbered about a thousand 

1 A permanent Ojibwa wigwam is illustrated in plate lxviii, though generally, at that day, per- 
manent as well as temporary wigwams were of birch bark or birch bark and matting, See plates 

LXVII 6, LXXIX. 

2 Warren, op. cit., pp. 175-176. 
3 Neill, History of the Ojibwa, p. 450. 



1042 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



souls. The}- raised large quantities of maize and potatoes; "they also 
collected each autumn large quantities of wild rice, which abounded in 
many of their lakes and streams." 1 

The following facts shed light on the importance which the Indian 
attached to wild rice. Almost every bend of Chippewa and Red Cedar 
rivers has been the scene of an Indian battle, and each of these streams 
has borne a name synonymous with " Wild-rice river." Prairie-rice 
lake ("Mush-ko-da-mun-o-min-e-kan," Prairie lake, Barron countj", 
Wisconsin) has been the scene of several battles between the Ojibwa 
and the Dakota. It is about 8 miles long and averages less than a quar- 
ter of a mile wide. It is shallow, miry-bottomed, and almost entirely 
covered with wild rice, which is so thick and luxuriant that the 
Indians have to cut paths through it for their canoes. "From the 
manner in which they gather the rice, and the quantity which a family 
generally collects during the harvesting season, this lake alone would 
supply a bod}?; of 2,000 Indians." 2 From the earliest period of their 
occupation of the Chippewa river country, the most fearless of the 
Ojibwa came to this lake each fall of the year to collect a portion of 
the abundant rice crop, notwithstanding its close vicinity to the Dakota 
villages, and notwithstanding that they lost lives from the sudden 
attacks of the Dakota almost yearly. 3 

Some of the Ojibwa villages near the wild-rice fields were named 
" Wild-rice village." In 1852 Warren 4 said that the Ojibwa living on 
"Rice" lakes of the St Croix were called " Mun-o-min-ik-a-sheenh-ug, 
or Rice-makers." In 1831, Schoolcraft, in naming the Ojibwa bands, 
mentioned the "Folle Avoine country " as including Lac du Flambeau, 
Ottowa lake, Yellow river, "Nama Kowagun" of St Croix river, and 
Snake river. 5 Indeed, the French called the Indians of all this section 
of country — the river sources of northern Wisconsin — the "Fols 
Avoin Sauteurs." 5 Arrowsmith's map (London, 1796; additions, 
1802) shows the Ojibwa occup3dng the territory both north and south 
of Lake Superior, and shows Burntwood river (Bois Brule) as the 
"passage into the country of the Wild Rice Indians." It leads to 
the headwaters of St Croix river, half-way down the course of which 
is a "Chippeway village called the Rice people." 

About 10,000 Ojibwa Indians had access to wild rice from the time 
they drove the Fox Indians out of the wild-rice fields until, sa} T , the 
year 1825. or in round numbers two hundred j r ears, and this is about 
the present Ojibwa population in the United States who use wild rice. 7 

1 Warren, op. cit., p. 299. 
'-'Ibid., p. 309. 
3 Ibid., pp. 309-310. 
« Ibid., p. 38. 

6 Schoolcraft, Narrative, appendix, p. 576. 
0 Coues, Pike, vol. I, pp. 342-343. 

7 The portable wigwams in which these Indians visit the rice fields are illustrated in plates LXVU 
b, I.XXIX. 



JENKS] 



DAKOTA MIGRATIONS 



1043 



The Dakota 

Ethnologists have shown that the Indian tribes of the Siouan lin- 
guistic stock at one time occupied the Piedmont and coastwise areas 
between the Appalachian range and the Atlantic in the present states 
of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. 1 Allen 8 has proved 
that the bison, prior to the year 1800, had crossed the Appalachians 
from the west and occupied the Piedmont area, entering this region 
probably by the way of Cumberland gap. W J McGee 3 puts these 
two facts together, and suggests that the bison led the ancestors ot the 
Dakota, one of the Siouan-speaking tribes, from the Piedmont into 
the western prairies, where history found them. Hale 4 suggests that 
the valley of Ohio river and of Big Sandy river, which flows into the 
Ohio and whose headwaters almost interlace those of the southerly 
flowing Cape Fear river, was the thoroughfare of these Indians and 
the bison. Further than this, Allen points out on the map accom- 
panying his memoir that prior to 1800 bison had occupied the western 
part of Wisconsin as far north as the highlands, and all of Minnesota 
except the northeastern portion. Thus they could easily have led 
the Siouan stock through Cumberland gap, the thoroughfare sug- 
gested by Hale, across the best pasture lands of America, the blue 
grass of Kentucky and the prairies of Indiana and Illinois, into the 
territory under consideration. 

It is believed, however, that the Dakota were not much given to 
buffalo hunting until they came into the prairie region west of the 
Mississippi river, where they became distinctly a buffalo-hunting 
people. Mr James Mooney suggested to the writer, after this memoir 
was written, that the Siouan ancestors were literally pinched out of 
their home in the east. The Iroquoian stock on the north and the 
Algonquian on the south of them drew in like the approaching sides 
of a triangle, and they were obliged to flee westward or perish. 

It must further be noted that the Dakota, or that division of the 
Siouan stock which opposed the westward migration of the Ojibwa, 
were more of the nature of plains Indians than of river Indians. None 
of the early travelers, including the Jesuit fathers, speak of them as 
having homes farther east than St Croix river. They all speak of 
them as settled west of Lake Superior. To be sure the Dakota roamed 
over all of Wisconsin, even to Sault Ste Marie and to Green bay; and 
as late as 1696 they attacked the Indians in Michigan around the 
southern end of Lake Michigan, but their instincts were clearly those 
of nomads. With the exception of the Siouan-speaking Winnebago 

1 Horatio Hale, The Tutelo Tribe and Language, Proc. Am. Philos.Soc., vol. xxi, 1883-84; see also 
James Mooney, Siouan Tribes of the East, bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1894, and Horatio 
Hale, Indian Migrations. Am. Antiquarian, January and April, 1883. 

2 The American Bisons Living and Extinct. 

3 The Sioux Indians; A Preliminary Sketch, Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Amer. Ethnol.,p. 173. 
4 Indian Migrations, op. cit., p. 3. 



1044 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Indians, part of the Mandan, and a few of the Dakota, the entire 
western Siouan stock seerns to have clung to the hunter life of the 
plains. 

A straight line drawn from the foot of Lake Michigan to the foot of 
Lake Superior (Fond du Lac) marks the earl}' eastern boundary of the 
bison country in the wild-rice district. Near Madison, Wisconsin, this 
boundary line bends slightly west of a straight line, while farther 
north it bends to the east so as virtually to cover the headwaters 
of Chippewa and St Croix rivers. It is thus seen that the Dakota 
were on the border line. They were acquiring a taste for wild rice, 
though they had not cultivated the soil in any way, and they still kept 
up their fondness for the bison with which they were surrounded 
when the Ojibwa began to force them westward south of La Pointe 
island. Though the Dakota fought doggedly, the Ojibwa obtained 
firearms at an earlier period and in greater numbers than they, and in 
the end were successful. Previous to the year 1776 Perrot built a fort 
at Lake Pepin, and Neill 1 said of the French at this fort: "Through 
their influence the Dakota began to be led away from the rice grounds 
of the Mille Lacs region." 

Another cause aided the Ojibwa toward the latter end of this struggle. 
As soon as the Dakota acquired horses they turned more readily to 
their employment of hunting the bison. They came in possession 
of horses near the opening of the nineteenth century. About the year 
1766 Carver said that the Dakota method of hunting the bison was to 
form a circle around a herd and then set the grass on fire. Few of the 
animals escaped. 2 Evidently the Dakota were then horseless. Again 
he said of the Indians still farther south and west: "Having great 
plenty of horfes, they always attack their enemy on horfebaek." 3 And 
later, "The Naudowei'i'ies [Dakota], who had been at war with this peo- 
ple, informed me, that unlei's the}' found moraffes or thickets to which 
to retire, they were fureof being cutoff: to prevent this they always took 
care wherever they made an onfet, to do it near inch [places] as were 
impaffable for cavalry." Lewis and Clarke wrote in 1804-1806 that 
dogs were still the beasts of burden used by the Dakota. Their k * lodges 
may be taken to pieces, packed up, and carried with the nation wherever 
they go, by dogs which bear great burdens." 4 Later they wrote that 
the Dakota frequently made incursions among the Mandan Indians to 
steal horses, 5 and that "the horses of the Mandans are so often stolen by 
the Sioux, Ricaras, and Assiniboins, that the invariable rule now is to 
put the horses every night into the same lodge with the family.'- 6 
According to Mallery the Dakota winter counts show that the Dakota 
first saw and stole horses wearing shoes in the winter of 1802— 1 803. 

i Neill, Indian Trade, in Annals of the Minn. Hist. Soc, lf>r>2, p, 32. 

2 Carver, Travels in 1766,1777,1778, p. 287. 

3 Ibid., p. 294. f'Ibid., p. 175. 
•' Coues, Lewis and Clarke, p. 140. 'Ibid., p. 288. 



JENKS] 



THE DAKOTA 



1045 



In the winter of 1811-1812 they caught many wild horses south of 
Platte river, and in the following winter they used riatas to catch wild 
horses. 1 

So, while during the early incursions of the Ojibwa into the wild- 
rice fields of the Dakota these fields were worth defending, yet they 
became less so when the horse came to carry the bison-loving Dakota 
into the great pasture lands of the western prairies. 

However, wild rice played no small part in the household economy 
of the Dakota Indians, those east of the Mississippi doubtless using it 
more than the others. A French author, probably of the first quarter 
of the seventeenth century, wrote that there were five village districts 
of these Indians. "The Ouatabatonha (River Sioux) live by the St 
Croix river or on the Wildrice lake, which is below and 15 leagues 
from the Eiviere au Serpent . . . The Menesouhakatoha (or lake 
Sioux) . . . The Natatoha (or prairie Sioux) . . . The Hictoha (or 
hunting Sioux) . . . The Titoha (or prairie Sioux)." The five vil- 
lages numbered 1,200 men, or about 6,000 or 7,000 souls. These were 
the only Dakota with whom there was any considerable commerce at the 
time. Others farther west would be little known, but the five villages 
of 6,000 or 7,000 souls were doubtless about the only Dakota who had 
access to wild rice. This number must again be reduced, for the 
Titoha village was situated 50 leagues west of St Anthony falls, hence 
probably did not use the grain, while it is recorded that the people of 
other four villages did not cultivate the soil, but were roving about and 
lived on game, fish, and wild rice. 2 This leaves some 5,000 or 6,000 of 
these Indians who used wild rice. 

Previous to this Perrot said that they occupied a country of nothing 
but lakes and marshes filled with wild rice. It lay for 50 or more 
leagues square (19,000 or 20,000 square miles) on both sides of the 
Mississippi : 

II est a, remarquer que le pays ou ils [the Dakota] sont n'est autre chose que 
lacs et marests, remplis de folles avoines, separes les uns des autres par petites lan- 
gues de terre qui n'ont tout au plus d'un lac a 1' autre que trente a, quarante pas, et 
d' autres cinq a, six ou un peu plus. Ces lacs ou marests contiennent cinquante 
lieues et davantage en carre, et ne sont separes par aucune riviere que par celle de la 
Loiiisianne (le Mississippi) , qui a son lit dans le milieu, ou une partie de leurs eaux 
vient se degorger. D' autres tombent dans la riviere de Saint Croix, qui est situee a 
leur egard au nord-est, et les range de pres. Enfin les autres marests et lacs situez a 
l'oiiest de la riviere de Saint Pierre s'y vont jetter pareillement; si bien que les Scioux 
sont inaccessibles dans un pays si marecageux, et ne peuvent y estre detruits que par 
des ennemis ayant des cannots comme eux pour les poursuivre; parceque dans ces 
endroits il n'y a que cinq ou six families ensemble, que forment comme un gros, ou 
une espece de petit village, et touts les autres sont de mesme eloignez a une certaine 
distance, afin d' estre a port^e de se pouvoir prester la main a la premiere alarme. Si 
quelqu'une de ces petites bourgades est attaquee, l'ennemy n'en peut deffaire que 



1 Pictography of the N. Am. Indians, Fourth Ann. Kept. Bur. Eth., p. 89 et seq. 
Neill, Memoir of the Sioux, p. 235. 



1046 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.axx.19 



tres peu, parceque tous les voysins se trouvent assemblez tout d'un coup, et don- 
nent un prompt secours ou il est besoin. La methode qu'ils ont pour naviguer dans 
ces sortes de lacs est de couper devant leurs semences, avec leurs cannots, et, les 
portantde lac en lac, ils obligent l'ennemy qui veut fuir a tourner autour; qui vont 
tousjours d'un lac«a un autre, jusqu'a ce qu'ils les ayent tous passez, et qu'ils soient 
arrivez a la grande terre. 1 

In 1659 Radisson wrote of the Dakota: 

Some 2 moons after there came 8 ambaffadors from the nation of Nadoneferonons 
[Dakota] that we will call now the Nation of the beefe. Thofe men each had 2 
wives, loaded of Oats [wild rice] , corne that growes in that countrey, of a f mall quan- 
tity of Indian Corne, w th other grains, & it was to prefent to us, w ch we received as a 
great favour & token of friendfhippe. 2 

In 1671 we read that "they content themselves with a kind of marsh 
rye, that we call f olle avoine, which the prairies supph T spontaneously.' 5 3 

In the latter part of the seventeenth century Le Sueur wrote much 
regarding the use of wild rice Iw the Dakota. Several references to 
his remarks will be made later; one, however, is now given. Le Sueur 
had built a fort on the Upper Mississippi in order to effect a treaty 
between the Ojibwa and Dakota, and on December 12, which would 
be after the harvest season for wild rice, three Mendeouacanton 
(Mdewaka n to n wa n ) chiefs came to tell him that the next summer, 
after having built canoes and gathered their wild rice, they would 
move near the French. La Harpe wrote, "et promirent que Tete 
suivant, apres avoir construit des canots et fait leur recolte de folle 
avoine, ils viendraient s'etablir aupres des Francais." 4 

Early in the nineteenth century Pike recorded that — 

The Minowa Kantongs are the only band of Sioux who use canoes, and by far the 
most civilized, being the only ones who ever built log huts, or cultivated any species 
of vegetables, and among those only a very small quantity of corn and beans; for, 
although I was with them in September and October, I never saw one kettle of 
either, they always using wild oats [wild rice] for bread. This production nature 
has furnished to all the most uncultivated nations of the N. W. continent, who may 
gather in autumn a sufficiency which, when added to the productions of the chase 
and the net, insures them a subsistence through all the seasons of the year. 5 

This band are reported the bravest of all the Sioux, and have for years been 
opposed to the Fols Avoin Sauteurs, who are reported the bravest of all the numer- 
ous bands of Chippeways. 6 

They resided from Prairie du Chien for 35 miles up Minnesota 
river. The Kahra, a Dakota band, are called by Coues the "Wild 
Rice Sissetons." 7 They extended from White Rock to Big Stone, or 
Inyantonka lake, on Minnesota river. 

A little later Schoolcraft presented the following facts: 

Even during the first part of the nineteenth century the Dakota, who constituted 
the tribe of lake people, the Mendewakantons, were united in three villages. The 

iMemoire sur les Mceurs, Coustumes et Relligion des Saavages de PAmerique Septentrionale, par 
Nicolas Perrot, Leipzig and Paris, 1864, pp. 88-89. 
2 Radisson, Voyages, p. 207. 6 Coues, Pike, vol. I, p. 344. 

s Relations des Jesuites, 1671, Quebec, 1858, p. 39 '"' Ibid., pp. 242-248. 

<La Harpe, Journal Historique, p. 68. 'Ibid., p. 349, note. 



JENKS] 



THE MENOMINI 



1047 



first was east of the Mississippi and about 4 miles from the Minnesota river. The 
second was on the Mississippi river. The third was on both sides of the Minnesota, 
about 6 miles from its mouth. Lying near the intersection of the roads between 
these three villages were the low grounds and marshes of sugar maple and wild rice, 
and here the villagers assembled to make sugar in the spring and to gather rice in 
the autumn. 1 

The fierce struggle of the Dakota with the Ojibwa at the rice fields 
is a measure of the value they put upon them. Among them, as 
among the Ojibwa, there were rice villages. La Harpe mentions 
three such, as follow: "Les Psioumanitons, village des chercheurs 
de folle avoine" (village of wild rice gatherers), "les Psinchatons, 
village de la folle avoine rouge" (village of the red wild rice), and 
"les Psinontanhinhintons, village de la grande folle avoine" (the great 
wild-rice village). 2 He mentions nine Dakota villages west and seven 
east of the Mississippi. It has been asserted that from the year 1800 
until 1851, when they were removed to Redwood reservation in western 
Minnesota, the Dakota east of the Mississippi, to the number of 2,000, 
used wild rice largely. ' ' Even after that a considerable number would 
visit the rice fields every fall to gather what they could 'til 1862, 
when the Minnesota massacre occurred, and they were removed to the 
Minnesota river. A few stragglers remaining in Minnesota still gather 
some." 3 The above letter does not speak of rice gathering by the 
western Dakota, but two of the wild-rice villages mentioned by 
La Harpe were west of the Mississippi, and, as has been shown and 
will be shown later from the testimony of maps, Minnesota river had 
immense wild-rice fields, while a few bodies of water west of the Mis- 
sissippi bear the Dakota name for wild rice. 

Considering all the data presented, it is probable that the estimate of 
2,000 wild rice producing Dakota Indians is too conservative for the 
earlier part of the nineteenth century; and it is believed that between 
5,000 and 7,000 Dakota Indians used wild rice at the time the Ojibwa 
were nominally in control of the territory east of the Mississippi. 
Is'one of the Dakota Indians on reservations have access to wild rice 
at the present time. 

The Menomini 

From the point of view of the present memoir the Menomini Indians 
are unique. From the year 1631 they have consumed wild rice in 
large quantities. Unlike other Indians who, for short periods, have 
been named because of their intimate relations with the grain, the 
Menomini have always been known, so far as Indian tradition and 
authentic history are concerned, as the "Wild-rice Indians" par 
excellence. 

Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. II, p. 97. 

2 La Harpe, Journal Historique, pp. 69, 70. 

3 Letter of Reverend John P. Williamson, Greenwood, South Dakota, January 21, 1899. Mr Wil- 
liamson and his father before him have been lifelong missionaries to the Dakota Indians. 



1048 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



In 1634, when Sieur Jean Nicollet first visited Green bay, lie found 
there a tribe of Indians lighter in complexion than their neighbors 
and remarkably well formed. They subsisted largely on wild rice, 
called "in their language manoma — from which they took their name; 
their own term being Omanominewak (Wild rice men)." 1 According 
to Hoffman the word "Menomini" is derived from Oma! nomine' u 
(mano'me, rice, and ina'neu or ina'ni, man). This is the name of the 
tribe in their own language, the Algonquian, though the} r pronounce 
it more as though it were spelled "Menomoni." The French named 
them "Folle Avoine," "Wild, Mad, or False Oat." From the above 
Indian and French terms and their English translations Hoffman records 
eighty-four synonyms b} T which these Indians have been known in 
written history. 2 Inasmuch as these synon3^ms are accessible in his 
monograph, they are not reproduced here, but a few synonyms sup- 
plementary to his list are jn'esented: 

Fallisavoines. Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xn, p. 78. 
Faulsavoins. Ibid., vol. xm, p. 443. 
Follavoine. Ibid., vol. xi, p. 265. 

Folle avoini. Buchanan, James, Sketches of the History, Manners, and Customs 
of the North American Indians, vol. v, p. 139 (New York, 1824). 
Followens. Long, Voyages, p. 146. 
Mahnomoneeg. Tanner, Narrative, p. 315. 

Malhoinmi. Carte Particuliere du Fleuve Saint Louis . . . avec les noms des 
Sauvages du pais, des Marchandises, 1750-60. 
Malhonmines. Radisson, Voyages, p. 201. 

Malomine. De Vaugondy, map, Amerique Septentrionale, 1750. 
Manominis. Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xn, p. 79. 
Monomonis. Map, The Upper Territories of the United States, in Carey's Gen- 
eral Atlas, Phila., 1814. 
Munominees. Atwater, Indians of the Northwest, p. 81. 

Omanominewak. Krautbauer in Am. Cath. Hist. Researches, Oct., 1887, p. 152. 
Wild Rice Indians. Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. i, p. 52. 

Radisson said of the Menomini late in the fifth decade of the seven- 
teenth century: "They weare of a nation called Malhonmines; that is, 
the nation of Oats, graine y* is much in y* countrey." 3 Charlevoix, 
in 1721, wrote of an island on the western side of Green bay, "upon 
which is the Village of the Malhomines, which the French call folles 
Avoines, (wild Oats), probably becaufe they make their common Food 
of this Grain."* From that time until the present there is frequent 
evidence that these Indians depended greatly upon wild rice. A few 
instances will be cited. Major Irwin wrote of them in 1820: "The 
Canadians designate them Folls-avoine . . . wild oats, or rice. This 
is one of the principal articles on which the Indians subsist in this 
quarter. It is to be found in great abundance, in the fall of the 
year ... It is believed that enough of it could be gathered in the fall. 

1 Krautbauer, in American Catholic Historical Researches, Oct., 1887, p 152. 

2 Hoffman, The Menomini Indians, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, part 1, 
pp. 12-14. 

3 Rudisson, Voyages, p. 201. * Charlevoix, Voyage to Canada, letter xix, p. 202. 



JENKS] 



THE MENOMINI 



1049 



to support several thousand Indians, for one year." 1 He continued: 
"In the spring- they subsist on sugar and fish; in the summer on fish 
and game; in the fall, on wild rice, and corn, and in the winter on fish 
and game. Those who are provident, have some rice during the win- 
ter." 2 In 1829 wild rice furnished them abundant subsistence. 3 Gov- 
ernor Dodge said of them in 1837-38, the} r "raise corn on the Oconte, 
Menominee, and Fox rivers, in small quantities, but depend on the 
chase, fishing, fowling, and gathering of wild rice for subsistence." 4 
Exactly similar reports were made for the years 1844 and 1845. 5 

These Indians are of the Algonquian linguistic stock, and for over 
two hundred and sixty years have been known to live in Wisconsin near 
Green bay. It is not known that they came westward with their kins- 
men, the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, but it seems probable that 
they preceded these others into the wild-rice district. Their habitat 
has shifted from the Menominee river on the north, between the upper 
peninsula of Michigan and Wisconsin, where their traditions fix the 
origin of the tribe, back and forth over the territory west of Green 
bay as far south as Fox river and Lake Winnebago. In 1852 they 
moved to their present reservation of ten townships, some 360 square 
miles, or about 230,000 acres, located in east-central Wisconsin. In 
August of the following year Oshkosh, their head chief, asked the 
agency superintendent to permit the tribe to go back to their old rice 
fields to gather rice. 6 Most of their rice is gathered at present in 
Lake Shawano, which lies about 8 miles south of the reservation. 

The following statistics of Menomini population have been gathered: 



Year 


Warriors 


Women 


Children 


Total 


Authority 


1718.... 

1761.... 
1820. . . . 
1842 


80-100 

150 
600 








Doc. Coll. Hist. New York, vol. ix, Albany, 

1855, p. 889. 
Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. i, 1854, p. 32. 
Morse, Report, New Haven, 1822, app., p. 51. 
Indian Affairs Report, 1843. 

Indian Affairs Report, 1863, p. 502. 
Indian Affairs Report, 1872, p. 384. 








900 


2,400 


3,900 
2,464 
500 
1,930 
1,697 
1,724 
1,362 
1,500 
1,400 
1,311 
1,335 
1,375 


1850 








1856 








1857.... 
1863 


358 


425 


914 


1872 








1882 








Indian Affairs Report, 1882, p. 344. 
Indian Affairs Report, 1884, p. 300. 


1884 








1890 








Indian Affairs Report, 1890, p. 462. 
Indian Affairs Report, 1892, p. 798. 
Indian Affairs Report, 1898, p. 612. 


1892 








1898 

















1 Morse, Report, app., p. 47. Dr Morse (ibid., app., pp. 51, 52) also reports communications from 
Messrs. John Lawe, Jas. Porlier, Peter, Augustin, and Louis Grignon, and Laurent Fily to the same 
effect. These gentlemen were traders at Green bay and vicinity for half a century. 

2 Ibid.,app.,p.48. 

:i House of Reps., War Dept., 20th Cong., 2d sess., House of Reps. Doc. No. 117, Indian Affairs; see 
also Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, pp. 591, 607, for the years 1829 and 1832. 
••Indian Affairs Report, 1837-38, p. 16. 
5 Op.cit., 1844-45, p. 131, and op. cit., 1845, p. 494. 
6 Op. cit., 1853, p. 52. 



1050 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



It is believed that an average of 1,500 souls is a safe estimate for 
the number of this tribe during the last two hundred and fifty years. 

The Sauk and Fox 

The tribes of the Sauk and Fox Indians have been closely associated 
for a long time. They are Algonquian, and therefore kindred to the 
Ojibwa and Menomini. It is believed that the}', like the Menomini, 
reached the wild-rice district before the Ojibwa, and that they and all 
their kinsmen were at one time driven westward by the Iroquois. 
These latter Indians were so fierce that the Algonquians said of them, 
"These are not men; these are wolves." 

The Sauk have been called O-saug-eeg, Ousakis. Saukies, Sakis, 
Sacs, or "Those who live at the entry." Warren said that they 
were called O-dish-quag-um-eeg, or "Last-water people." 1 Arm- 
strong wrote of the Osaukies, or "Men from the white earth or clay," 
that they came from Canada by way of Michigan, stopping for a short 
time at Saginaw (Sauganau), which was named after them. They 
soon came to Wisconsin and formed a lasting alliance with the Fox 
Indians. 2 

Warren called the Fox Indians O-dug-am-eeg, or "Opposite-side 
people," and says that they were driven westward by the Iroquois and 
settled southwest of Green bay, Wisconsin, where they were allies 
of the Sauk Indians. Armstrong spoke of them as the "Men from 
the red earth." 3 The French called the Fox Indians " des Renards," 
and it is through the French that the English name is derived. On a 
map of 1672, and also on Marquette's map of 1673, they are termed 
" 8TAGAMI," and are located on the present Fox river, between 
Green bay and Lake Winnebago. It has been noticed that these 
Indians were in villages in the wild-rice fields of St Croix and Chip- 
peway rivers, and that later, after being dislodged by the Ojibwa. they 
resided on Wisconsin river. That they were producers of wild rice 
is unquestioned, but it is regretted that so little is known of them 
during the period when they must have depended largely upon the 
grain. 

The Sauk and Fox tribes united and migrated southwestward early 
in the eighteenth centuiy. On good authority it was claimed in 1S22 
that more than a century previous, both of these tribes, who then 
inhabited the country on Green bay and Fox river, were conquered 
and driven away by the Menomini. aided by the Ottawa and Ojibwa: 
and the Menomini title to the territory is admitted to be good by these 
other four tribes; that is, the Sauk, Fox, Ottawa, and Ojibwa. 4 

1 Warren, History of the Ojibways, p. 32. 

- Armstrong. The Sauksand the Black Hawk War, p. 9. 

3 Armstrong, op. cit., p. 11. 

* Morse, Report, app., p. 57. 



JENKS] 



THE SAUK AND FOX 



1051 



Carver said that there was a Sauk town on the Ouisconsin [Wiscon- 
sin] river near the portage to the Fox river where " they raife great 
quantities of Indian corn, beans, melons, &c. fo that this place is 
efteemed the beft market for traders to furnifh themfelves with pro- 
vifions, of any within eight hundred miles of it." 1 It was about the 
3 r ear 1730 that " Sauk-e-nug," the Sauk capital, was built on Rock river 
some 3 miles south of Rock Island, Illinois. In the year 1804 the 
Sauk and Fox together ceded southern Wisconsin, or such land as lay 
east of the Mississippi and as far south as "the mouth of the Ouiscon- 
sing river, and up the same to a point which shall be thirty -six miles 
in a direct line from the mouth of the said river; then in a direct 
line to the point where Fox river (a branch of the Illinois) leaves the 
small lake called Sakaegan; thence down the Fox river to the Illinois 
river, and down the same to the Mississippi. " In 1825 the Sauk and 
Fox relinquished all claim to territory east of the Mississippi and 
north of Iowa river. 

In 1826 it was written of the Sauk that "the} r don't make use of 
wild rice, because they have none in their countiy except when they 
procure some from the Wenebagoes or Menominie Indians." 2 It is 
probable that neither of these tribes used wild rice extensively after 
about the middle of the eighteenth century, when the Fox Indians 
were driven from their Wisconsin river retreat. 

Each of these two tribes numbered probably about 1,500 or 2,000 
souls during the period when they produced wild rice. In 1823 
Beltrami said that there were four Fox villages along Wisconsin river, 
with a total population of 1,600. 3 Pike reported in 1806 that in the 
three Sauk villages there were 700 warriors, 750 women, 1,400 children, 
and probably a total number of 2,850 souls. Of the Fox Indians he 
said there were also three villages, and 400 warriors, 500 women, 850 
children, a total, probably, of 1,750/ 

The Winnebago 

The Winnebago Indians belong to the Siouan linguistic stock. They 
were the rear-guard of their kinsmen, the Dakota, for, while the latter, 
in their movement westward, passed on to the headwaters of the 
Mississippi and its large tributaries, the Winnebago halted near Lake 
Michigan. They long occupied a strip of territory lying due east of the 
Mississippi to the foot of Green bay. 

Schoolcraft says the Algonquian called the Puants (Winnebago) 
" Wee-ni-bee-gog," from the Algonquian weenud (turbid or foul), and 

1 Carver, Travels, p. 47. 

2 Account of the Manners and Customs of the Sauk Indians (manuscript), 1826, by Thomas Forsyth 
(in Wisconsin Historical Society's manuscript collection), pp. 39-40. 

3 Beltrami, Pilgrimage, vol. II, p. 169. 

4 Pike, Expeditions, table F, to face p. 66, app., part 1. 



1U52 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES Teth.ann.19 



nibeeg (the plural form for water). 1 Again he says that the Winnebago 
call themselves " Hochungara," or Trout nation, and "Horoji," or 
Fisheaters. 2 Hoffman presents a Menomini legend of the origin of the 
name. 3 While Ma'nabush, a mystic personage who instructed man- 
kind in the mysteries of the Mita'wit, or medicine-society, was lying 
asleep, some Indians came along and stole all of his roasting birds. 
He awoke in time to see some very dirty and poorly dressed Indians 
escaping in their canoes. "Then he called to them and railed them, 
calling them ' Winnibe'go ! Winnibe'go ! ' And by this term the 
Menomini have ever since designated their thievish neighbors." 

They were at Green ba} r when Nicollet came there in 1634, living in 
the wild-rice fields at peace with their Algonquian neighbors, the 
Menomini, Sauk, Fox, Maskotin, Ottawa, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, and 
Kickapoo. Schoolcraft says that their earliest traditions place them at 
Red banks, on the eastern shore of Green bay. There is no doubt, 
however, that thev came into this territory with their Dakota kins- 
men, and through preference exchanged the habitat of the prairies 
for the forests, lakes, and rivers. Lake Winnebago and Winnebago 
county, Wisconsin, mark their old habitat; in 1658 they were called 
"Ouinipegouek," and occupied this territory.* It is impossible to 
locate with accuracy any of these early Wisconsin and Minnesota 
tribes, as their possessions, or claims to possessions, greatly over- 
lapped, and opportunities for correct map-making of the Northwest 
in the early days of its settlement were far from the best. 

The Winnebago have been producers of large quantities of wild rice; 
in fact it has been, and still is, a staple food with many of them. These 
Indians ceded their Wisconsin lands, and many of them took a reser- 
vation in Minnesota in 1859; 5 but they gradually returned, and in 1897 
there were 1,447 of them scattered along Black river and its vicinity 
in Wisconsin. These are the only Winnebago now in the wild-rice 
district. Of the numerous Indians of this tribe near the Tomah Indian 
school in Monroe county, Wisconsin, the school superintendent, under 
date of August 25, 1898, wrote: "The Winnebago Indians here are 
nearly all full-bloods, and they are about as far from civilization as 
they were fifty years ago." 6 The Winnebago in a winter village 
near Elroy, Juneau county, Wisconsin, in the winter of 1898-99, said 
that they now gather annually large quantities of wild rice in the sloughs 
of the Mississippi at La Crosse, Wisconsin, and also on the Iowa side 
of the stream. 

The following estimates of Winnebago population have been made. 

'[Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, p. 277. 

2 Ibid., vol. I, p. 277. 

3 Hoffman, The Menomini Indians, op. cit., p. 205. 

4 Relations des Jesuites, 1G58, p. 21. 

5 See C. C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States, in the Eighteenth Annual Report of 
the Bureau of American Ethnology, part 2. 
15 Indian Affairs Report, 1898, p. 399. 



JENKS] 



THE MASKOTIN 



1053 



Pike reported that in 1806 there were 450 warriors, 500 women, and 
1,000 children — a total population of 1,950 in the seven Winnebago 
villages. 1 In 1812 it was said that there were 700 warriors, 1,000 
women, and 1,800 children, or a total of 2,800, while in 1820 there 
were 900 warriors, 1,300 women, and 3,600 children, a total of 5,800. 2 
Probably 2,000 souls is a very conservative estimate of the number of 
Indians of this tribe who used wild rice during the period with which 
this memoir deals. 

The Potawatomi 

It will be remembered that the Potawatomi (Potewa'tmik) are mem- 
bers of the great Algonquian stock, which comprised also the Ojibwa 
and Ottawa, and which split into three sections at Sault Ste Marie. The 
present Indians, the "Potta-wat-um-ees," or "Those-who-make-or- 
keep-a-fire," came southward along the west shore of Green bay and 
Lake Michigan after the separation alluded to. In 1658 they were 
reported to be the nearest tribe to the settlement of St Michel near the 
head of Green bay. 3 They were then called Oupouteouatamik, and 
numbered 700 men, or 3,000 souls, including 100 of the Petun or Tobacco 
tribe. Marquette's map of 1673 places the Pstestami (Potawatomi) 
between Green bay and Lake Michigan. They undoubtedly consumed 
wild rice at this time, were noted as traders, and were the middle- 
men between the French and Indians farther inland. Their trading 
instinct doubtless in large measure explains their departure, for when 
the French settled at Detroit, some of the Potawatomi followed them 
there; others stopped at St Joseph river, Michigan, where they pro- 
duced wild rice (to which numerous references will later be made); 
still others stopped at Chicago, where they used wild rice, as will also 
be shown. 

Though none of this tribe resides on a reservation in the wild-rice 
district, yet in 1883 it was said that 280 of them were nomads in Wis- 
consin, and in 1897 the same estimate of population was made. Doubt- 
less 2,000 or 2,500 of these Indians consumed wild rice at one time. 

The Maskotin 

In 1658 Pere Gabriel Druillettes spoke of the "Makoutensak," the 
Maskotin, as being the third "nation" west of St Michel at Green 
bay. A map of 1672 places the "Mascoutens ou Nation du Feu" 
along the southwest side of Lake Winnebago. On Marquette's map 
of 1673 the Maskstens are on Fox river above Lake Winnebago. 
In 1718 the ""Feu" were at Chicagou (Chicago), according to a French 
map.* Hennepin's map of 1687 places the Mascoutens, or Nation du 
Feu, south of the mouth of Fox river. According to others they 

1 Pike, op. cit. 3 Relations des, Jesuites, 1658, p. 21. 

2 Morse, Report, app., p. 59. 4 Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours du Mississipi. 

19 ETH, PT 2—01 32 



1054 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. an*. 19 



were south of Green bay in 1736 with 80 warriors, and in 1764 Hutchins 
reports them still there, but with 500 people. A map of the middle of 
the eighteenth centuiy locates them south of Wisconsin river. 1 They 
then vanished from history. It is sometimes maintained that they allied 
themselves with the Kickapoo and disappeared among them. School- 
craft says that the Ojibwa and Ottawa drove them southward as they 
invaded Wisconsin, 2 and that among the traditions of the Algonquian 
tribes which inhabit the shores of the upper lakes is one that they 
drove to the south, into the present area of Wisconsin and Illinois, 
two unknown tribes whose names are "Miscotins" and "Assigunaigs." 3 
In 1671 Father Allouez quotes a "master of a Maskotin feast" as 
saying "the} T [the Dakota] have eaten me to the bones, and have not 
left me a single one of my family in life." In Allouez' words, "il 
sembloit que ce fust un festin pour combattre, et non pas pour 
manger . . . Vous avez entendu parler des peuples qu'on appelle 
Nadoiiessi; ils m'ont mange jusqu'aux os, et ne m'ont pas laisse un 
seul de ma famille en vie." 1 Thus at that early date the Maskotin were 
sorely pressed b}^ a fierce and powerful enenry, but it can scarcely be 
doubted that these Indians, in considerable numbers, occupied the 
wild-rice region of Wisconsin prior to its occupancy by the Sauk, 
Fox, and Dakota Indians, as these latter are known to have occupied 
it before they were driven out by the Menomini and Ojibwa. 5 

The Assiniboin 

The " Assinipoualaks " (Assiniboin) or " Warriors of the rocks," are 
a Siouan tribe which, perhaps in the sixteenth century, after quarrel- 
ing with their kinsmen, the Dakota, sought refuge among the assin 
or rocks of the Lake of the Woods. Prof. W J McGee says they 
separated from the Yanktonai Sioux. 6 It will be remembered that 
the division of the Ojibwa which went westward along the northern 
shore of Lake Superior found the Assiniboin and formed a lasting 
peace with them. Accoi'ding to Warren this would have been in the 
latter part of the fifteenth century; and a letter which appears to have 
been written at Fort Bourbon on Hudson bay about 1695 says that 
the Assiniboin separated from the Dakota a long time ago. It reads: 
"On pretend meme que ces Assiniboels sont une Nation Sciouse, qui 
s'en est separee il y a long-temps." 7 It is therefore believed that the 

1 Map of America, John Bowles & Sou, London [1740-1750] . 

- Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. vi,p. 203. 

3 Ibid., vol. i,p.305. 

4 Relations des Jesuites, 1671, p. 46. 

6 Mr James Mooney, in a recent conversation, advanced the plausible theory, that this tribe was a 
Potawatomi people, called by the recognized Potawatomi bands Mnshkoden'suk or (Little) Prairie 
people. They are now on a reservation in Kansas. 

°McGee, The Siouan Indians, Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 190. 

'LettresEdiiiuntes, Paris, 17S1, vol. VI, p. 30. 



JENKS] 



THE KICKAPOO, OTTAWA, AND HUKON 



1055 



Assiniboin separated from their kinsmen as early as the sixteenth 
century. 

Marquette said, in 1670, "The Assinipouars, who have about the 
same language as the Nadouessi [Sioux, Dakota], are westward from 
the Mission of the Holy Ghost [at La Pointe, Wisconsin], at a lake 
fifteen or twenty days 1 journey distant, where they gather wild rice 
and where the fishing is very good." 1 Perrot writes of them: "The 
Chiripinons, or Assiniboulas, sow wild rice in their marshes, which 
they afterward gather; but they can transport it home only during 
the period of navigation." 2 

The Kickapoo, Ottawa, and Huron 

Besides the Indians previously considered in this chapter, the^e were 
several thousand Kickapoo, Ottawa, Huron, and other Indians who 
lived among them in the wild-rice district. 

According to maps of the years 1718, 1740-1750, and 1755, the 
"Outaouacs" (Ottawa) were a short distance south of Lake Superior. 
Their numbers at the time are not known. 

Radisson and Groseilliers claim to have made, a year or two prior 
to 1660, a canoe voyage up Lake Superior as far as Chequamegon 
bay, and from there to have visited a village of refugee Huron Indians 
living on a lake whose headwaters drained into Chippeway river. 
Perrot gives their number as 100. About 1660 they went to the 
Noquet islands at the mouth of Green bay. They moved two or three 
times more in the northwest, and finally went to Detroit. They were 
in Wisconsin probably from about 1652 to 1670. 3 

Before 1716 the Kickapoo were reported on the west side of Green 
ba} r on the present Fox river. 4 A map of 1720 represents them south 
of Green bay, while the territory occupied by them in 1716 had a 
Kikalin village. 5 The map last cited has also " Villages of 4 Nations" 
near the mouth of Fox river. 

In this chapter only the most conservative estimates of Indian 
popidations have been given, and by these it is proved that fully 
30,000 Indians used wild rice at one time. Estimating the Ojibwa at 
10,000, the Dakota at 6,000, the Menomini at 1,500, the Sauk and Fox 
at 2,500, the Winnebago at 2,000, the Potawatomi at 2,000, there are 
24,000 souls. Besides these there are the Assiniboin, Maskotin, Kick- 
apoo, Huron, Ottawa, and others, all of whom might easily swell the 
number to a total of 30,000 souls. 

1 Verwyst, Missionary Labors, Milwaukee and Chicago, 1880, p. 104. 

2 Perrot, Memoire, p. 52. 

3 Shea, The Indians of Wisconsin, in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. in, p. 125 et seq. 
4 Herman Moll, Map of North America, printed before 1710. 

5 Moll, A New Map of the North Parts of America claimed by France, 17^0. 



Chapter IV 



PRODUCTION 
Introduction 

The world is fortunate indeed that it has turned its attention to the 
scientific and historic studj r of human efforts and institutions before 
primitive man has entirely disappeared. When attention is directed 
to the effort of production, one is convinced that the first act was simply 
that of appropriation — as of a club to strike, a stone to throw, a hole 
to crawl in, fruit to eat. One can not make use of commodities in the 
past or in the future; he must use them in the present. The hungry 
primitive man was satisfied when he found food to eat. His want was 
a present want, but he was often hungry when he could not find the 
desired food; so at the moment when he conceived the thought of 
keeping food from a stock of present plenty until a time of future 
need he took a highly important step in the varied progress of civil- 
ization. 

In the study of vegetal food production the first attention should be 
given to indigenous products which require no care, or, in other words, 
to purely native and spontaneous products. 1 Wild rice is a plant of 
this sort. It was so seldom planted and the stalks were so seldom cared 
for that in this regard it is near the bottom of the ladder in the ascent 
of cultivated plants. Production with regard to wild rice, therefore, is 
confined chiefly to the gathering and care of the seed. After a general 
description of the processes of harvesting and preparing the grain, a 
detailed study of each step in the production will be made, as the 
methods vary greatl} 7 in different localities. 

The grain is matured in the latter part of August or in September. 
Shortly before that time the women often go to the rice fields in their 
canoes and tie the standing stalks into small bunches (plate lxx). 
When the grain is sufficiently mature, two persons, generally women, 
go together into the fields to garner the seed. The stalks are usually so 
close together in the harvest field that it is impossible to use a paddle, 
so the canoe is pushed along by a pole. As the harvesters pass among 
the rice, standing 4 or 5 feet above the water, one of the women 
reaches out, and, by means of a stick, pulls a quantity of the stalks down 

1 It is not meant here that all agriculture began with such food products as are produced sponta- 
neously in great abundance. It is quite probable that want did much toward causing primitive 
people to cultivate the soil. See \V J McGee, The Beginning of Agriculture (American Anthropolo- 
gist, Washington, October, 1895). 

1056 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXX 




INDIAN WOMAN ON HER WAY TO THE RICE BED TO TIE THE 

STALKS 



i: 



Up* 

enks] SOWING AND OTHER EARLY CARE 1057 

over the side of the canoe. Then with a similar stick held in her free 
hand she heats the fruit head, thus knocking the grain into the bottom 
of the canoe. In this way the grain on both sides of the path is 
gathered. When one end of the canoe is full, the laborers exchange 
implements, the harvester becoming boatman and the boatman har- 
vester, and the other end of the canoe is filled on the return trip to 
the shore. The grain is then taken out, dried or cured, its tenacious 
hull is thrashed off, and, after being winnowed, it is stored away for 
future use. 1 

11 In the golden-hued Wazu-pe-wee — the moon when the wild-rice is gathered; 

When the leaves on the tall sugar-tree are as red as the breast of the robin, 
And the red-oaks that border the lea are aflame with the fire of the sunset, 

From the wide-waving fields of wild-rice — from the meadows of Psin-ta-wak-pa- 
dan, 

Where the geese and the mallards rejoice, and grow fat on the bountiful harvest, 

Came the hunters with saddles of moose and the flesh of the bear and the bison, 
And the women in birchen canoes well laden with rice from the meadows." 

Gordon, Legends of the Northwest, pp. 58-59. 

Sowing and Other Early Care 

Perrot wrote that the Assiniboin Indians, west and northwest of 
Lake Winnipeg, Canada, sowed wild rice in their marshes, which they 
later came to gather. He says: "Les Chiripinons ou Assiniboulas 
sement dans leurs marais quelques folles avoines qu'ils recueillent, 
mais ils n'en peuvent faire le transport chez eux que dans le temps de 
la navigation." 2 

At the present time, near Eat Portage, Ontario, there are two small 
lakes in the vicinit} r of Shoal lake where the Indians (Ojibwa) have 
sown wild rice, and where the} r procure quite a harvest. 3 

The Ojibwa Indians at Rice lake, near Crandon, Forest count}', Wis- 
consin, at times both sow the grain and weed out the large flat grass 
which grows among the stalks. 

The Ojibwa Indians of Lac Courte Oreille reservation, Wisconsin, 
have a tradition that all the wild rice between their present habitat and 
Red river of the North has been sown by their ancestors. 4 The finest 
harvest field now on the reservation is that of Lac Courte Oreille river. 
It is a sown field. Paskin', a woman estimated to be slightly over a 
hundred years of age, says that she remembers when wild rice was 

1 Attention is called to the following published illustrations of wild rice harvesting by the Indians: 
1, Ojibwa Indians: Schoolcraft Indian Tribes, vol. in, pi. 4, p. 64; ibid., vol. VI, p. 552; same by 
Stickney, Indian Use of Wild Rice, American Anthropologist, vol. ix, pp. 115-121, April, 189G; 2, 
Chicago Tribune, Sunday edition, October 6, 1898, p. 1. 3, An early picture of the harvest: Bressany, 
Relation Abr6g6e de Quelques Missions, Montreal, 1852, p. 237. 4, Dakota Indians: Catlin, Illnstni- 
tions of the manners, customs, and condition of the North Amencan Indians, 10th ed., vol. ri, pi. 278, 
p. 208, London, 1866. 5, Wisconsin Indians: Olney, Quarto Geography, 1849, p. 37; Bryant, Popular 
History of the United States, 1878, vol. II, p. 514. 

2 Perrot, Memoire, p. 52. 
3 Pither, letter, December 5, 1898. 
4 See chapter vi. 



1058 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.anx.w 



gathered in Prairie lake, Barron county, Wisconsin, and sown in Lake 
Chetak, Bice lake, Bear lake, Moose-ear lake, and Lac Courte Oreille 
river, all in the near vicinitj 7 of their reservation. All of these waters 
are harvest fields for the Ojibwa of Lac Courte Oreille reservation 
today. 

Awa'sa sowed the grain in Lac Courte Oreille river, and his grand- 
children's families now harvest the crop. Several other families on 
the reservation gather wild rice in harvest fields which they them- 
selves have sown. In the fall of 1899 at least one family gathered 
grain with which to sow a private field.- 

Tying 

Various reasons are assigned for tying the standing stalks into little 
bunches or sheaves while the grain is in the milk stage (plates lxxi, 
lxxii). The stalks are tied with strips of bark, and are left standing 
two or three weeks to ripen. 1 

Hennepin said in 1697 that the " Nadouessiou " (Dakota) Indian 
women at Mille Lacs, Minnesota, tie the stalks together with white- 
wood bark (basswood, Tilia americana) to prevent it from being all 
devoured by flocks of duck, swan, and teal. 2 The unknown author of 
the Memoir of the Sioux, written some time after 1719, says that 
the Titoha (a Dakota tribe living 50 leagues west of St Anthony 
falls, in Minnesota) tie the wild rice into bundles while it is standing, m 
order that it may die (ripen); then when it is dead they gather it. 3 In 
1820 Edward Tanner wrote that the Ojibwa Indians at Sandy lake, 
Aitkin county, Minnesota, formerly gathered the tops into large 
shocks, "to render the collecting of the grain easier when ripened. 
By this means they also obtained it in much larger quantities than at 
present." 4 In 1820 they did not tie it into bunches. 

General Ellis wrote of the Indians in Green Bay county, Wisconsin : 
"One mode is to go into this 'standing corn' with their canoes, and 
taking as man} 7 stalks as they can compass with their hands, give them 
a twist and kink, and then turn the bunches downward, leaving them 
to ripen on the stalks. This gives the party twisting the bunches, a 
kind of pre-emption to so much of the rice, which before was all com- 
mon." 5 Carver said: " Nearly about the time that it begins to turn 
from its milky ftate and to ripen, they run their canoes into the midft 
of it, and tying bunches of it together juft below the ears with bark, 

i Rodman, letter, November 11, 1898; Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, p. 130; Eleventh Census >>f 
the United States, 1890; Indians, p. 340. 

2 Hennepin, Nouvelle Decouverte, p. 313* (fol. 0*4); Williamson, letter, November 30. 1S9S; Flint. 
Geography and History, vol. I, pp. 84-S5; Martin Bressimi, Relation Abregee de Quelques Missions, 
p. 332; Brown, Western Gazetteer, p. 267; Stuntz, letter, November 24, 1898. 

3 Neill, in Macalester Coll. Cont. Dept. of Hist., Lit., and Pol.Sci.,ser.l, number 10, St. Paul, 1S90, pp. 
235-236. 

* Edward Tanner, in Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 
5 Ellis, Recollections, p. 265. 



JENKS] 



TYING IN SHEAVES 



1059 



leave it in this fituation two or three weeks longer, till it is perfectly 
ripe. About the latter end of September they return to the liver, when 
each family having its f eparate allotment, and being able to diftinguii'h 
their own property by the manner of faftening the f heaves, gather in 
the portion that belongs to them." 1 E. S. Seymour wrote: "In the 
first place, to protect it from black birds, they collect the grain in 
bunches while the grain is in the milk, and cover each bunch with a 
band made of the bark of the linden or bass wood tree." 

The Ottawa Indians used to so tie the bunches that a pathway was 
left between the rows: " Vn peu auparauant qu'elle monte en espy, 
les Sauuages vont en Canot lier en touffes l'herbe de ces plantes, les 
separant les vnes des autres autant d'espace qu'il en faut pour passer 
vn Canot lors qu'ils reuiendront en cueillir le grain." 2 There is little 
doubt that all of the tied rice was similarly arranged in rows, as that 
would be the simplest manner to tie it, and would afford the easiest 
way to gather it when the laborers used canoes. 

It is seen from the above quotations that the chief reason for tying 
the stalks is that the grain may be saved until it is matured. Many 
kinds of birds consume it with avidity when they can get at the heads, 
and if it is tied up it is also much less liable to be destroyed by rain or 
wind storms. 

The care in tying is shown in a letter by Roger Patterson, govern- 
ment farmer of Bad River reservation, Wisconsin, which is here 
quoted in part: "About August 15th the squaws, using small canoes, 
go out along the river and gather together the heads of rice, tying 
them with bark strings into sheaves, taking care to draw them 
together gently, so as not to break the stems or roots. After being 
tied and wrapped with bark strings so that the grain will not waste, 
it is left standing, supported by the stalks that are not broken, about 
2 feet above the water." 3 

The women at Lac Courte Oreille reservation tied their wild rice 
in the season of 1899 in the following manner: They were camping 
with their entire family at the field and spent several days at this 
particular process while the grain was in the milk (see plate lxxii). A 
large round ball of "bast," the bark string with which they were to tie 
the bunches, was ready behind them in their canoes. This ball is often 
a foot in diameter and is made of strings of the green inner bark of 
basswood; it is so wound that it unwinds from the inside, like the 
modern binding twine. The string averages a quarter of an inch in 
width. A forked pole is used to push the canoe into the thick, heavy 
mass of stalks, it being impossible to paddle in such a forest, and the 
mud bed being too soft to allow a straight pole to be used. Then the 

1 Carver, Travels, p. 523. 

2 Relations des Jesuites, 1663, p. 19. 

3 Patterson, letter, November 23, 1898. See also Rodman, letter, February 14, 1899. 



1060 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES Ieth.ann.19 



woman reaches out around the stalks with a curved stick and hauls 
them toward the side of the canoe (see figure 47). Both this sickle- 
shaped stick and her hands are employed to form the stalks into a bunch. 
When the bunch is formed the woman reaches up to her shoulder and 
pulls over the bark string, which passes from the ball behind her 
through a loop on the back of her dress immediately below the shoulder. 
While holding the stalks with one hand, she lays the string down along 
the bunch for several inches, and, suddenly checking this movement, 
begins rapidly to wind the string around the stalks toward their tops. 
In this way she makes secure the lower end of the fastening by put- 
ting several wrappings of the string around it. She winds the stalks 




Fig. 47 — Sickle-shape sticks used to draw the stalks within reach for tying. 

for about 2 feet, and then bends the top of the bunch over in the 
form fl and fastens it to the upright part by a single loop and single 
knot of the string, which is then cut with a knife, and the tying proc- 
ess is completed. These bunches are usuall} T 3 feet long from the 
lowest wrapping to the top of the stalks, but the stalks are usually 
not tied closer than 10 or 12 inches to the ends. Such long bunches 
are made necessaiy by the uneven length of the stalks. The fruit 
heads are quite uniformly 1 foot long. Probably one-half of the ker- 
nels are securely wrapped with the string, while the others, at the top 
of the stalks, are kept from jarring out by the steady support of the 
bunch. As much as 8, 10, and 12 feet of the string is used to tie a 
single sheaf. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXII 




TIED BUNCHES OF WILD RICE 

I 



JENKSj 



METHODS OF GATHERING 



1061 



The bunches are made with great uniformity and regularity. A 
row is tied on both sides of the canoe, and when the limit of the field 
is reached the laborer turns around in the canoe, and returning, ties 
two other rows by the side of and parallel to the last. The fields at 
this period are very attractive. The graceful bunches and regular 
rows, either straight or following the outer limits of the beds, are 
extremely pleasing to see. 

At present the Menomini Indians tie their rice only where the water 
is too shallow to allow canoes to travel. 

The mechanical means necessary in the process of tjdng are very 
simple. The canoe (see plate lxxiii) is indispensable. The only mate- 
rial spoken of which is used to tie the stalks is basswood bark in strings 
or strips. It has also been noticed that at times the stalks were held 
together hy being twisted to form a bunch. A sickle-shaped stick, 
about 3£ feet long, is used to draw the stalks within reach for tj T ing. 

Gathering 

The previous process, that of tying, is not an essential one in the 
harvest of wild-rice grain, though, as has been shown, it is not uncom- 
mon. The first necessary step in the entire harvest is the gathering 
of the seed, and, while the grain is alwaj^s gathered in canoes or other 
craft (there is a minor exception among the Menomini), there is, in 
the gathering, great variety in means and method. It is usually done 
by women. It is customary for the families which harvest wild rice 
to move to the fields during the harvest period, which lasts about one 
month. 

In the Algonquian language manominikewin means "the gathering 
of wild rice. " 1 Nin manominike is " I gather wild rice ; " 1 manominike 
signifies "he gathers wild rice" 2 (Wilson spells the same term munhoo- 
mineka 3 ). The wild-rice bag used in harvesting is called manominiwaj . * 
In the Dakota language jpsin ati means "to pitch a tent at the rice 
[fields]," 5 while fate psin is "wild-rice wind." 6 

Radisson wrote of the Dakota: "They have a particular way to 
gather up that graine. Two takes a boat and two f ticks, by w eh the} T 
gett y* eare downe and gett the corne out of it." 7 

The following account came from Sandy lake, Aitkin county, Min- 
nesota, in 1820: 

It is now gathered by two of them [women] passing around in a canoe, one sitting 
in the stern and pushing it along, while the other, with two small pointed sticks, 
about three feet long, collects it in by running one of the sticks into the rice, and 
bending it into the canoe, while with the other she threshes out the grain. This she 
does on both sides of the canoe alternately, and while it is moving. 8 



Baraga, Otchipwe Dictionary. 6 Riggs, Dakota-English Dictionary. 

2 Verwyst, Geographicai Names, p. 393. "Gordon, Legends of the Northwest, p. 58. 

3 Wilson, Manual of the Ojebwa Language. 7 Radisson, Voyages, p. 215. 

4 Baraga, op. cit. s Edward Tanner, in Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 



1062 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OE UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



General Ellis wrote that the Indians in Green Bay county, Wiscon- 
sin, in pushing the canoe used a "long, light, slender pole, provided 
with a fork at one end, to prevent its sinking too deep into the soft 
muddy bottom/ 1 1 

Catlin said of the Dakota that one woman paddled the canoe while 
the other bent the stalks over and beat out the grain, as is told above. 2 
The Dakota used to gather the g'rain and carry it home in sacks. 3 

The Potawatomi Indians, of southwestern Michigan, gathered the 
grain as follows: They "would push the boat into the thick rice, bend 
the tops over the boat, and pound it out with 'rawagikan,' a stick for 
the purpose." 4 

The Ojibwa women of Bad river, Wisconsin, bend the tied bunches 
over the side of the canoe, untie the bark band, and beat out the grain 
with a short stick. 5 It is customary to untie the bunches before beat- 
ing them. 

At Fond du Lac (Lake Superior), Minnesota, two persons of either 
sex, or both, go out in a canoe, the forward person working it ahead 
with either a paddle or a forked pole. The one in the stern beats the 
rice out, using two sticks, one to bend the rice over and the other to 
beat the heads. 6 Harmon saw the Indians gathering the grain " with 
a hooked stick, in one hand, and a str, light one in the other." 7 

Again we read that the "Fols Avoines" (Menomini) west of Green 
bay, Wisconsin, beat the grain off into a canoe lined with blankets. 8 
Another variation is found in that after the band about the stalks was 
cut and removed one of the harvesters bent the heads down over the 
canoe with a stick while the other with a pole beat off the grain. 9 

Dr Hoffman, in his monograph, The Menomini Indians, wrote that, in 
1892, "at the proper season the women, and frequently the men as 
well, paddle through the dense growth of wild rice along the shores of 
the lakes and rivers, and while one attends to the canoe, the others grasp 
with one hand a bunch of rice stalks, bend it over the gunwale into the 
boat, and beat out the ears of rice. " 10 In 1899 the Memomini still gath- 
ered most of their rice in canoes from untied stalks, but where the 
water was too shallow for canoes, the stalks were tied, and the grain 
was beaten out on mats spread upon the water between the rows. 
The stick with which they beat the heads is called "pawa'qikan." 

i Ellis, Recollections, p. 266. 

- Catlin, North American Indians, vol. II, p. 208. 

s Williamson, letter, November 30, 1898. This letter reads as though the grain was taken home 
before it was cured and hulled. Because of the danger from the Ojibwa, who dominated the rice 
fields during the period covered by the letter, it is not improbable that such was the case. 

■> Pokagon, letter, November 16, 1898. 

5 Patterson, letter, November 23, 1898. 

0 Phalon, letter, December 27, 1898. 

' Harmon, Journal, p. 142. 

8 Brown, Western Gazetteer, p. 267; also Flint, Geography and History, vol. i, p. 85. 
°Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, p. 183; see also Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. in, p. 62 et seq. 
10 Hoffman, The Menomini Indians, p. 291. 



JENKS] 



METHODS OF GATHERING 



1063 



At Rice lake, Ontario, "two go with a birch canoe, into the thickest 
part of it [the rice field] and with their paddles thresh it [the grain] 
into their canoe." 1 

Again it is recorded that the Ottawa bend the bunches over the 
canoe and shake the grain into it: "Le temps de la moisson estant 
venu, ils menent leurs Canots dedans les petites allees qu'ils ont prati- 
quees au trauers de ces grains, et faisant pencher dedans les touffes 
amassees ensemble, les egrainnent." 2 

In all of the above gathering it is simply the grain which is removed. 
Two instances are found, however, in which the entire fruit-head is 
cut off and taken to the shore in the canoe, and still others in which 
the stalks are cut in sheaves and taken thus to the shore. 

At Eice lake, Ontario, we find that "one person steered the canoe 
with the aid of the paddle along the edge of the rice beds, and another 
with a stick in one hand, and a curved sharp-edged paddle in the other, 
struck the heads off as they bent them over the edge of the stick; the 
chief art was in letting the heads fall into the canoe." 3 

At Rat Portage, Ontario, sticks about 2 feet long are used by the 
gatherer who "strips off the heads." 4 A forked pole is used to push 
the canoe, but the boatman sits at the bow instead of at the stern. 
The men and not the women gather the grain there. 

At Moose-ear river, Barron county, Wisconsin, in 1892 the women 
and boys went through the field in canoes, and with knives cut the 
stalks about 2 feet long. They then tied them in bunches about half 
as large as a sheaf of wheat, and brought them to the shore. 5 The 
Green Bay county, Wisconsin, Indians, who made bunches by giving 
them "a twist and kink," cut these bunches with knives and then 
brought them to the shore. 6 The late Chief Pokagon wrote of the 
Potawatomi Indians of St Joseph river valley, Michigan, that "It 
[wild rice] was sometimes gathered in bundles and kept in that way 
for winter use." 7 

The Indians at Lac Courte Oreille reservation also gather what 
they call "green wild rice." When they are at the fields to tie the 
bunches they strip off the grain into their canoes by simply pulling 
the closed hand over the fruit-heads. This grain, then in the milk, is 
parched and consumed during the period immediately before the 
mature grain is gathered, though some families at times cure a suffi- 
cient quantity for consumption during the year. The grain in this state 
is much lighter in color than that which is cured when more mature. 

1 Jones, Life and Journals, pp. 259-260; also Chamberlain, Notes on the History, Customs, and 
Beliefs of the Mississagua Indians, in Journal of American Folk-Lore, vol. I, 1888, p. 155. 

2 Relations des J6suites, 1663, p, 19; also Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. I, p. 74. 
3 Traill, Canadian Crusoes, p. 188. 

* Pither, letter, December 5, 1898. 

6 John Hutchinson, letter, Elroy, Juneau county, Wisconsin. 

6 Ellis, Recollections, p. 265. 

» Pokagon, letter, November 16, 1898. 



1064 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. an.v. 19 



Again, as in the tying of the stalks, the eanoe is indispensable in the 
grain-gathering. At times a blanket is spread in the bottom; the 
canoe is propelled by a paddle, a pole, or a forked stick, sometimes 
the canoeman propels the canoe from the stern and sometimes from the 
bow. The grain may be gathered into the canoe by one person, who 
may hold the stalks in one hand and beat the grain out •with a stick, 
or with two sticks, or sometimes with a paddle; or two persons may 
gather the rice, one holding the stalks over the canoe while the other 
beats out the grain with a pole. Again, the heads are clipped off over 
one of the sticks, and this is done either with another similar stick, or 
with a sharp-edged curved paddle. At other times the grain is shaken 
out. Knives are used to cut the bundles which are tied, sometimes 
before cutting and sometimes after. 1 

Curing and Drying 

As soon as the grain is gathered it is taken to the shore, and ordi- 
narily the curing process begins immediately. This work also usually 
falls to the women. A slight movement of the stalk by bird or wind 
or rain will cause the grain to drop into the water when it is fully ripe, 
hence it must be gathered just before maturity. This necessitates 
that the rice be artificially ripened or cured; when thus ripened it 
will not germinate. It is almost always necessary thus to prepare the 
grain in order that the tenacious hull may be easily removed. 

There are three ways in which the grain is cured, viz, by the sun, 
by smoke and heat from a slow fire underneath it while spread on a 
scaffolding, and by parching or "popping" in a vessel. 

The sun-dried grains become almost black, the kernels varying from 
black through the browns to greenish grays. The Dakota Indians of 
Titoha village, about 50 leagues west of St Anthony falls. Minnesota, 
early in the eighteenth century, sun-cured their rice. 2 On Fond du 
Lac reservation there is a double process: After being gathered, it is 
taken ashore, laid on birch bark or blankets spread on the ground, 
and dried by the sun. After being - dried, which takes about twenty- 
four hours, it is placed in a large copper kettle and roasted over a 
slow fire, being continually stirred with a paddle until the hull is 
thoronghlj" roasted, when it is ready for hulling. On Moose-ear 
river. Barron count}', Wisconsin, in 1892, after the grain was cut, tied 
in bundles, and brought to the shore, it was spread on a long rack to 
dry in the sun. The stalks were laid on the rack in two rows, each 
having the heads in the same direction. Next, a blanket was spread 
on the ground, and a pole was placed with its lower end on the blanket, 
while the other end was held at a slight angle above. Over this pole 
the stalks, with the now dried fruit heads, were held, and the grain 



1 A view of the rice Held after the grain has been gathered is shown in plate LXXlv.a. 
■Neill, Memoir of the Sioux, p. 236. 



JENKS] 



CURING AND DRYING 



1065 



was beaten out with a stick. It was again dried or cured before 
hulling, but the details of the process could not be ascertained. 1 

The Winnebago, who still gather wild rice in large quantities, cure 
the grain on a rack over a slow fire. 2 In 1820 the Indians around 
Sandy lake, Aitkin county, Minnesota, often cured their rice on a 
scaffolding of small poles about 3 feet high (see plates lxxivJ and 
uxxv«). This rack was covered with cedar slabs, upon which the 
grain was spread. A slow fire was then kept burning beneath until 
the kernels were entirely dry. It required about a day to dry a scaf- 
f oldf ul. Again, mats were spread over a scaffolding, on which the rice 
was put and cured by a fire underneath. 3 Marquette said that the 
Indians on Green bay cured their rice on a wooden lattice, under which 
they kept a small fire for several days, or until the grain was well 
dried. 4 

By the Mississagua Indians about Rice lake, Ontario, the following 
method was employed in 1888: 

Returning to the shore, they stick into the ground pine or cedar branches, so as to 
form a square inclosure. Within this they drive in forked sticks, upon which cross- 
pieces are laid, and upon these latter mats of bass-wood or cedar-bark are placed. 
Under this framework a fire is then lit, and the hedge of green branches serves to 
keep in the heat. The rice is spread upon the mats, and kept turned about with the 
paddle until dried. 5 

A recent method of the Dakota was to build a scaffold from 20 to 50 
feet long, 8 feet wide, and about -i feet high. This was covered with 
reeds and grass, upon which the grain was spread. A slow fire was 
then kept burning for thiily-six hours so as slightly to parch the 
hull. 6 At Eat Portage, Ontario, the grain of the first day's gathering is 
parched, after which a scaffolding is made "with poles about eight feet 
high and covered . . . with cedar slabs, and over these grass, and 
then a layer of rice." A fire is buiJt beneath to diy the grain. 7 

The parched or popped rice is lighter in color than that cured in the 
sun. The kernel is also swelled almost to twice the diameter of the 
sun-dried kernel, and much of it is slightly popped or cracked open. 
However, it does not open like popped corn, but most of the grains 
when parched have a peculiar translucent crystalline appearance. In 
1820 Edward Tanner wrote: "One method of curing the rice, and that 
which makes it the most palatable, is by putting it in a kettle in small 
quantities, and hanging it over the fire until it becomes parched." 8 
Chamberlain says of the Mississagua Indians, above referred to: 

1 Information of John Hutchinson, Elroy, Juneau county, Wisconsin. 

- Information of Winnebago near Elroy, Juneau county, Wisconsin, winter village in 1898-99. 

3 Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, p. 183. 

4 Shea, Discovery and Exploration, p. 9; also Carver, Travels, p. 524. 
5 Chamberlain, in Journal of American Folk-Lore, vol. 1, 1888, p. 155. 
6 Palmer, Food Products of the North American Indians, p. 422. 

; Pither, letter, December 5, 1898. 

8 Edward Tanner, Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 



1066 WILD BICE GATHEREES OF UPPEE LAKES [eth.ann.19 



"When it is desired to parch it, the rice is placed in pots over a slow 
fire until the grain bursts and shows the white, mealy center." 1 The 
Ojibwa Indians of northern Wisconsin kiln-dried (i. e., parched) their 
rice in kettles during the fifties and sixties of the nineteenth century. 2 
At Bad river, Wisconsin, it is cured in kettles, but is apparently not 
parched, as is seen from the following: "Indians like it in dry kettles 
and pots over a fire until it is scorched brown. The hull will then 
slip off easily.' 13 At Rat Portage, Ontario, as soon as the men come 
ashore with the rice "the women commence to parch the first day's 
gathering in the manner corn is popped. They use a kettle over a 
slow fire." 1 The remainder of the harvest is fire-cured on a rack. 
The Menomini in 1892 did not cure all the rice as soon as it was 
gathered; at times it was not dried until after the threshing and win- 
nowing. 5 In 1899 the same Indians had two methods of curing the 
rice. Such grain as was for immediate use was parched in a kettle, 
while the remainder of the crop was fire-cured on racks covered with 
rush matting. No new phases of the curing process were learned at 
the Lac Courte Oreille reservation. They cure the grain both by 
parching in a kettle and by fire-drying on a rack, the closely laid 
cross sticks of which were covered with long fresh marsh grass. A 
birch-bark box, or mocock, is generally used to carry the grain both 
from the canoe to the rack and from the drying rack to the place of 
threshing. Although these Indians esteem the parched rice more 
highly than the fire-cured variety, yet, on account of the extra labor 
in parching, they fire-dry fully four times as much as they parch. 

Not many mechanical implements are used in curing the rice. It is 
sun-cured on blankets, on birch bark, and on scaffolds of sticks. It 
is fire-cured and parched in kettles. Scaffolds are covered with sticks, 
cedar slabs, reeds, grass, and mats of basswood and cedar bark. These 
scaffolds are at times nearly surrounded by a hedge of pine or cedar 
branches. A paddle is used to stir th? grain while parching in the 
kettle, and also at times while drying on the rack. 

Thrashing 

From the time the grain is removed from the fruit head until it is 
thrashed, it is covered with a close-fitting hull. The grain while in 
this dress appears almost exactly like a long-bearded oat (see plate 
lxxvi). With few exceptions all the preceding work of harvesting is 
clone by the women, who, at times, are assisted by the children. The 
work of hulling falls to the men, or now and then to the boys, only 
two instances being noted in which the women did this work. 

There is little question that woman was man's first thrashing-machine, 
and that her hands were first employed to separate the seeds from 



' Chamberlain, op. cit., p. 155. 3 Patterson, letter, November 23, 1S9S. 

'-' Stuntz, letter, November 24, 1898. * Pither, letter, December 5, 1S98. 

« Hoffman, op. cit., p. 291. 



JENKS] 



METHODS OF THRASHING 



1067 



the fruit head and hull. It seems also true that as soon as small seed 
was gathered in any considerable quantity the feet were taught to 
do the work of hands. Here, then, is the invention of the treadmill 
thrashing-machine. This is the power mostly employed in the thrash- 
ing of wild rice, although sticks are used — sometimes like flails and 
again like churn dashers. The hull is also rubbed or shaken off in 
blankets and baskets. 

Along the west shore of Lake Koshkonong, in Jefferson county, 
Wisconsin, a great many holes were yet visible in 1895 which were 
the basins in which the rice hulls had been tread loose from the grain, 
though it is questionable whether wild rice has been gathered there 
during the last half century. Fifty years ago Schoolcraft also 
reported such depressions in great numbers around Rice lake, Barron 
county, Wisconsin. He said: "A skin is put in these holes, which 
are filled with ears. A man then treads out the grain. This appears 
to be the only part of rice making which is performed by the men. 
The women gather, dry, and winnow it." 1 Edward Tanner said that 
in 1820 a hole was dug in the ground about a foot and a half deep and 
3 feet in circumference, into which a moose skin was usually put. 
The rice was then put in and trodden out by an Indian. "This is 
very laborious work," he says, "'and always devolves upon the men." 2 
Ellis, in speaking of the Indians in Green Bay county, Wisconsin, 
wrote that a hole is made to contain about 1 gallon; "the rice is then 
tied up in a deerskin, placed in the hole, and tramped upon with the 
feet till the hull is removed." 3 

Another variety of the treadmill is found in the following two 
accounts: "A hole is dug in the ground, and about a bushel of rice is 
put in it and covered with a deerskin. A man, steadj r ing himself by 
a stake driven into the ground, jumps about on the grain until the 
hulls are removed." 4 At Lac Courte Oreille reservation, Wisconsin, 
two such stakes are driven into the ground and tied together. They 
project from the ground at an angle of about 60° and lean slightly 
away from the thrashing hole (see plate lxxv b). The man supports 
himself upon these props while treading out the grain. It is only fair 
to say that he tries to have a new pair of buckskin moccasins for this 
work — but sometimes buckskin is scarce. The thrashing holes are of 
two varieties. One is a simple excavation about 2 feet in diameter 
and 18 inches deep. This is lined with a deerskin, into which the rice 
is poured. The thrasher treads directly on the grain. The other kind 
of hole is similar in size, but is lined at the bottom with a block of wood 
and at the sides with hand-made staves about half an inch thick, which 
overlap like clapboards. In this hole also the thrasher treads directly 
on the grain. 

1 Schoolcraft, Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes, p. 385. 
- Edward Tanner, Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 

3 Ellis, Recollections, p. 266. * Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, pp. 183, 184. 



J 



1068 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Marquette said that they put the rice " in a skin of the form of a bag," 
after which it was tread out in a hole. 1 The Ottawa in the middle of 
the seventeenth centuiT tread out the grain in a ditch. This thrash- 
ing was done immediately after the gathering, and it was cured after 
instead of before the thrashing: " Quand le Canot est plein, ils vont le 
vuider ii terre dans vne fosse preparee sur le bord de l'eau, puis auec 
les pieds ils les foulent et remuent si longtemps, que toute la balle s'en 
detache." 2 Another glimpse of the worker is obtained from the Dakota 
in the early seventies of the nineteenth century. To separate the hull 
from the grain a hole about a foot wide and deep was dug in the ground 
and lined with skins. About a peck of rice was put in at a time; an 
Indian stepped in and with a half jump on one foot and then on the 
other tread the grain free. 3 A letter from Bad River reservation, 
Wisconsin, mentions that moccasins are worn by the Indian as he 
treads the grain in a tub. 4 In most places moccasins are usually worn 
in this work, but in the autumn of 1899 the men at Vermilion Lake 
reservation, Minnesota, tread their grain out barefoot, and this is 
their usual method. In the early part of the eighteenth century the 
Dakota tread out their grain in a wooden trough. 5 In 1829, at Rice 
lake, Ontario, the boys tramped the grain in a hole lined with a deer- 
skin, 11 and of these Indians the same thing is written again in 1888. In 
neither case is the grain cured before it is threshed. 7 However, they 
also thrash it in another manner, to which later reference will be 
made. The curing and thrashing processes were curiously combined 
by the Ojibwa in northern Wisconsin in the middle of the nineteenth 
century. A green or fresh deerskin was staked out and stretched over 
a quantity of coals. The rice was then poured on this suspended skin 
and a small boy was put to treading it. 8 

In 1822 the Menomini thrashed their rice in a hole lined with a deer- 
skin. The grain was "pounded with a stick (having a thick end to it), 
for the purpose of disconnecting the husk from it." 9 Hoffman wrote 
the same facts seventy years later, saying that the hole was 6 inches 
deep and 2 feet across. 10 Again he says: "Some of the Menomini 
women make a special form of bag in which to beat out the rice. This 
bag is 2 feet wide by from 18 to 20 inches deep, and is woven of bark 
strands. It resembles very much an old-fashioned carpetbag. After 
the rice is put into this, the bag is laid into a depression in the 
ground and beaten to separate the hulls." 10 In 1899 their parched 

1 Shea, Discovery and Exploration, p. 9. 
- Relation's dea Jesuites, 1 603, p. 19. 

:; Palmer, Food Products of the North American Indians, p. -422. 
* Patterson, letter, November 13, 1898. 
6 Neill, Memoir of the Sioux, p. 296. 
"Jones, Life and Journals, p. 260. 

'Chamberlain, Notes on the History, Customs, and Beliefs, p. lo.\ 

8Stuntz, letter, November 24, 1898. 

'■'Morse, Itcport, appendix, p. 17. 

1 Hoffman, The Menomini Indians, p, 291, 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXV 




a; section of drying rack 




B, STAVE-LINED THRASHING HOLE FOR TREADING OUT THE GRAIN 



JENKS] 



METHODS OF THRASHING 



1069 



rice was hulled by tramping in a hole in the earth. The laborer was 
supported by leaning upon a single stick or light post driven into 
the ground. But the greater part of the crop, the fire-cured grain, 
was thrashed otherwise. Usually 15 to 25 bushels were dumped in a 
ditch 10 or 15 feet long and 2 feet deep; then two men with crooked 
sticks, pawa'qwikanaq'tlk, flailed the hulls loose. High screens were 
erected on both sides of the ditch to check the flying kernels. 

At Fond du Lac, Lake Superior, the grain is "churned or pounded" 
with a stick "shaped like a handspike, being largest at the butt." 
The hole is about "knee-deep with a solid block in the bottom, the 
sides being lined with staves, after the fashion of a barrel and of about 
the same diameter." 1 

Besides treading off the hulls the Indians at Lac Courte Oreille 
reservation thrash their grain with the churndasher-like sticks. A 
deep hole is lined with the previously mentioned handmade staves, 
or a barrel is sunk almost its full length into the ground; this is 
then nearly filled with the grain. One or two persons, of either sex, 
pound up and down with the heavy-end sticks — f requentty holding two 
of them (see plate lxxvii a). 

The Potawatomi of St Joseph river valley, Michigan, sometimes 
pounded the grain in a sack made for the purpose, and sometimes in 
a skin-lined hole in the earth. This instance and the ones immediately 
preceding and immediately following are the only ones in which 
reference is made to the women as thrashers. The late Chief Pokagon 
wrote that this work was done by the women and children, and some- 
times by the men. 2 

The Winnebago thrash their rice on a blanket laid upon the ground; 
around three sides of this blanket a cloth screen 2 or 3 feet high is 
erected in order to confine the flying kernels. The thrasher, man or 
woman, sits at the open side of the blanket with a stick in each hand 
and flails the grain. 3 Hoffman refers to exactly the same process for 
the Menomini in 1892, except that mats are used on the ground and 
for screens, and a depression is dug, into which the ground mat is laid.* 
The present Mississagua Indians thrash their rice also by shaking it 
in large open baskets after the grain has been thoroughly dried. 5 

Carver wrote that after the grain was cured the Indians trod or 
rubbed off the hull. 6 Williamson says that the Dakota beat the grain 
until the hulls burst, when they will rub off. 7 About 1810 the Pot- 
awatomi at Grass lake, Lake county, Illinois, had two ways of hulling 
their rice. One method was employed immediately after gathering, 

1 Phalon, letter, December 27, 1898. 

2 Pokagon, letter, November 16, 1898. 

3 Information from Winnebago near Elroy, Juneau county, Wisconsin, winter 1898-99. 

4 Hoffman, op. cit., p. 291. 

5 Chamberlain, op. cit., p. 155. 
0 Carver, Travels, p. 524. 

' Williamson, letter, November 39, 1899; also Kinzie, Wau-Bun, p. 67. 
19 ETH, PT 2—01 33 



1070 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



when the grain was roasted on hot. flat stones, thus causing the hulls 
to crack and loosen, after which they were rubbed off. The other 
method was to wait until the grain was ready to be consumed, when 
the kernel, inclosed in its hull, was pounded. This pounded mass was 
then put into a vessel of water. The hulls, which would remain on 
the surface of the water, were then skimmed off. and the water and 
pounded kernels made into a very palatable soup. 1 

The implements for thrashing are neither varied nor numerous. 
Holes dug in the ground are lined with skins and slabs of wood. 
Wooden troughs, blankets or mats, bags of skin, and bags of woven 
bark are all used to hold the grain while being thrashed. Stakes are 
sometimes used to steady the laborer; he usually wears moccasins 
while treading the grain. Cloth and mats are used as screens. Sticks 
used like flails and like churn-dashers are also employed. The grain 
is at times pounded on flat stones, and again it is shaken in large open 
baskets. 

Winnowing 

It is not difficult to draw sharp lines separating the various processes 
which have been described thus far in the harvesting of wild rice. 
The entire winter, the spring, and most of summer intervene between 
the sowing and the tying. Between the tying and the gathering from 
several days to several weeks elapse; and though the gathering and the 
curing may be done on the same day, and even at the same time by 
different women, the gathering is on the water, while the curing is on 
the land. The curing' and the thrashing are plainly distinct proc- 
esses; but it is only because of division of labor that a sharp line 
ma} 7 be drawn between the thrashing and the winnowing. The Indian 
silently stalks into the labors of rice harvesting when the thrashing- 
begins, and when it is completed he silently stalks out again, leaving 
the woman to lift up the pile of mixed kernels and chaff in order that 
the wind — nature's fanning mill — ma} T separate them. If the wind 
does not blow when the grain is ready to winnow, the cleaner uses 
a fan. 

Ellis wrote that in Gi'een Bay county, Wisconsin, the hulls were 
blown off by the wind. 2 The Ojibwa women of Fond du Lac reser- 
vation, Minnesota, and Bad River reservation, Wisconsin, all winnow 
their wild rice by means of the wind. 3 Mr Phalon writes of Fond du 
Lac, "A blanket or birch bark is spread on the ground, and with the 
help of a good stiff breeze the grain is fanned out." The women at 
Lac Courte Oreille reservation, as I saw the process in the autumn 
of 1899, put a peck of the thrashed grain into a birch-bark tray 

1 Paddock, letter, January 20, 1899. 
- Ellis, Recollections, p. 266. 

"Phalon, letter, December 27, l.sys; Patterson, letter, November 13, 1898. 




WILD-RICE KERNELS BEFORE THRASHING 



jenks] WINNOWING AND STORING 1071 

(plate lxxix7>), which is about 3 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 7 or 8 
inches deep. They then grasp both ends of the tray, and by a very 
simple yet clever movement gradually empty the chaff. The tray is 
lifted several inches and carried slightly outward. This upward and 
outward movement is checked quite suddenly, and the tray, while 
being drawn toward the body of the laborer, is let down again. The 
light chaff is thus spilled over the outer edge when the tray is at its 
highest point and just as it is suddenly jerked toward the laborer. 
However, because of the rapidity with which this shaking is done, 
the movements appear neither sudden nor jerky, and the chaff falls 
almost constantly (see plate lxxvii />). 

Among the Menomini, ''on a windy day, by means of a birch-bark 
tray, the rice is cleaned. . . . Sometimes the rice and hulls are 
separated by spreading on a mat and fanning with a bark tray." 1 The 
Sandy lake Indians in 1820 cleaned their rice with "a fan made of 
birch bark, shaped something like those used by farmers. This is the 
most expeditious way of cleaning it." 2 

The only implements used in winnowing are birch-bark fans, blankets 
and birch-bark trays (which are spread upon the ground to catch the 
grain). 3 

Storing 

While the American farmer locks his granary that its contents may 
be safe, the Indian hides his harvest for safetj". In fact, the common 
term by which the Indian granaiy is now known throughout the North- 
west is the French term cache, or hiding place. It is a part of an 
Indian's code of morals not to steal from his friends, but it is equally 
a virtue to steal from an enemy. Inasmuch as tribes ordinarily 
habitually steal from one another, the fall harvest of wild rice must 
be kept in a place of safety. Its hiding was formerly much more 
necessary than at present, for before the time of settled homes the 
families broke up the harvest camp immediately after completing 
their labors, and l-epaired to their fall festivities or hunting-grounds. 
As will be seen later, there was both a subjective and an objective 
reason why the Indians did not store away larger quantities of wild 
rice. One l eason was that they would not gather large quantities of 
the grain, and the other reason was that the crop so often failed 
that at times they could not harvest abundantly. However, now and 
then the instinct of frugality was strong enough to assert itself. 
Atwater said that the Winnebago women contrived to save, by hiding, 
some of their food in time of abundance. They often buried rice and 

1 Hoffman, op. cit., p. 291. 

-Edward Tanner, op. cit., December 8, 1820; see also Seymour, op. cit., pp. 183,184; Kinzie, op. cit., 
p. 67; Jones, op. cit., pp. 259, 260; Gheen, letter, November 15, 1898. 
3 The appearance of the grain after winnowing is shown in plate lxxviii. 



1072 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.axx.19 



maize in the ground to keep it from being stolen. 1 Throughout Wis- 
consin in 1813 the grain was deposited in the ground to be taken out 
when needed for food. 2 

After winnowing the grain ''They [the Titoha band of Dakota, in 
the early part of the eighteenth century] carry away as much of it as 
they think they need and store the rest in the ground. They also put 
some to rot in the water, and when they return in the spring they find it 
delicious, although it has the worst kind of an odor.'* 3 The "Man- 
tantons" (Mandan) kept rice in sacks, for, after a great feast made in 
honor of Le Sueur, the chief "fit present a M Le Sueur d'un esclave 
et d'un sac de folle avoine." 4 

At Sand}- lake, in 1820, the rice when cured was " put into sacks of 
about a bushel each. A sack is valued at two skins. ... A skin is 
valued at two dollars.'' 5 Carver wrote one hundred and thirty years 
ago that when the rice was fit for use the Dakota put it into skins of 
fawns and young buffalo, taken off nearly whole for this purpose, and 
sewed into a kind of sack, wherein they preserved it until the next 
annual harvest. 6 The Indians at Rat Portage, Ontario, "make bags 
of the inside bark of cedar in which the} 7 store the rice. They hold 
from f to 1 bushel each." 7 Schoolcraft said that the winnowed rice 
"is then put into coarse 'mushkemoots,' a kind of bag, made of vege- 
table fiber or twine, with a woof of some similar material. Occasion- 
ally this filling material is composed of old cloth or blankets, pulled 
to pieces." 8 Birch-bark boxes were also used, which, after being filler! , 
were f requently buried. The Ottawa Indians used them in the middle 
of the seventeenth century. 9 The Potawatomi also used these boxes. 10 
They were sewed together at the corners with "bast," the inner bark 
of the basswood, and were called (from the Algonquian) mococks (plate 
lxxix a). 

The Indian granaries here noticed are very simple. They consist 
of a hole in the ground, into which are put boxes of birch bark and 
bags made of skin, bags made of the inside bark of the cedar and 
sometimes of other vegetal fiber, together with twine, etc. 

Property-right in Wild Rice 

As has been pointed out, most of the labors of wild rice production 
are performed by women. The women of more than one family fre- 

1 Atwater. Indians, p. 102. 

2 Indian Affairs Report, 1843, p. 434. 
3Xeill,Memoiro£ the Sioux, p. 236. 
<La Harpe, Journal Historique.p. 66. 

5 Edward Tanner, Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 

6 Carver, Travels, p. 524. 

7 Pither, letter, December 5, 1898; see also Gheen, letter, November 15, 1898, and Hoffman, The 
Menomini Indians, p. 291, for the same use of bags. 
* Sc hoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. in, p. 62. 
'■' Relations des Jesuites, 1663, p. 19. 
io Pokagon, letter, November 16,1898. 




o 




JENKS] 



PROPERTY-RIGHT IN WILD RICE 



1073 



quently unite their labors and divide the product according to jsorne 
prearranged agreement or social custom. It must not be lost sight 
of, however, that if the food of any worthy family fails, the entire 
food supply of the social group is available to make up the deficiency. 
Chief Pokagon writes of wild rice among the Pottawatomi: "Our 
people alwa}rs divide everything when want comes to the door.' 1 1 

Among many North American Indian tribes, especially those culti- 
vating fields of maize, certain harvest lands are set aside by the tribe, 
in which the family has a sort of fee tail. In general, it may be said 
that such a family controls for its own use, but not for disposal in 
any way, definite harvest lands for stated periods of time, provided it 
comply with certain requirements — usually those of cultivation. 

Marquette reported something similar among the Dakota in 1671. 
They divided the wild-rice fields so that each could gather his crop 
separately without trespassing upon his neighbor's rights. Wild rice 
"qu'ils partagent entr'eux, pour y faire la recolte chacun a part, sans 
empieter les uns sur lesautres." 

Among the Ojibwa Indians property right is quite generally recog- 
nized in wild rice. It seems to be due not to tribal allotment, but to 
preoccupation. Certain harvest fields are habitually visited by fami- 
lies which eventually take up their temporary or permanent abode 
at or near the fields. No one disputes their ownership, unless an 
enemy from another tribe, in which case might establishes right. The 
field or crop is sometimes distinguished by a personal mark, as is 
shown in the following cases. Carver said that after having tied the 
bunches they went to gather the crop, "when each family having its 
feperate allotment, and being able to dil'tinguifh their own property 
b} T the manner of fattening the fheaves, gathers in the portion that 
belongs to them." 2 Ellis referred to a similar custom at Green bay. 
He spoke of twisting the standing stalks into bunches, and says: '"This 
gives the party twisting the bunches, a kind of pre-emption to so 
much of the rice, which before was all common." 3 Schoolcraft, in 
speaking in a general way of wild rice gathering in Michigan. Wis- 
consin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the upper Mississippi and Missouri val- 
leys, said that the places where each family is to gather are generally 
selected and known beforehand.* Of course, if one has sowed a field, 
no one, unless a tribal enenvy, would think of disputing the owner- 
ship of the sower, and such rice beds fall to the kin, as would personal 
property. 

Amounts of Wild Rice Harvested 

The primitive Indians do not take production very seriously. Indeed, 
they do not take it seriously enough for their own welfare, for often 
they are in want in an unnecessarily short time after the harvest. In 



1 Pokagon, letter. November 16, 1898. 

2 Carver, Travels, p. 523. 



s Ellis, Recollections, p. 265. 

4 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, p. 62 et seq. 



1074 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



the case of wild rice, their want was due not to overproduction and 
underdistribution, but to underproduction. 

In 1820 Edward Tanner wrote: " One family ordinarily makes about 
five sacks of rice [5 bushels]; but those who are industrious some- 
times make twenty -five — though this is very rare." 1 At Pelican 
Lake, Wisconsin, they gather about 12 or 15 bushels per family. 
They could gather more " if they did not spend so much time feasting 
and dancing every day and night during the time they are here for 
the purpose of gathering. " 2 In the following table (A) an attempt is 
made to show the state of wild rice production between the years 1852 
and 1898. 

1 Edward Tanner, Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820. 
SMotzfeldt, letter, December 3, 1898. 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXVIII 




WILD-RICE KERNELS AFTER THRASHING AND WINNOWING 



JENKS] 



AMOUNTS HARVESTED ANNUALLY 



1075 



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WILD EICE GATHEEEES OF UPPEB LAKES [eth.axx.19 



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JENKS] 



AMOUNTS HARVESTED ANNUALLY 



1077 



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1078 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 

Note a — Estimates of other Indian productions for the year 186i 



Commodities 


Amounts 


Value 


Furs 




$10, 000 
15,000 
3,000 
1,500 


Maple sugar 


150,000 pounds 
3,000 bushels 
1,000 bushels 


Potatoes 


Maize 


Total 




59, 500 







With wild rice valued at $25,000, as is given in Table A, it equaled 30.308 per cent of the total Indian 
production (Indian Affairs Report, 1864, p. 417). 

Note b—Zizania aquatica has not been found west of the Rocky mountains; so this reference should 
be, probably, to Avena fatua, the indigenous wild oat of California and vicinity. 

Note c — Several letters of inquiry sent to Indian Territory have met with no response. It is there- 
fore impossible to state what grain this is, though it is believed to be Zizania aquatica. 

Note cl — The Seminole of Indian territory planted rice in 1873 (see Indian Affairs Report, 1873, p. 212). 
The same fact is suggested in the Indian Affairs Report for 1872. 

This table shows, therefore, when all doubtful references to wild-rice 
production are disregarded, that, besides the Indians in the wild rice 
district, the following have produced the grain since 1852: The Kieka- 
poo of Kansas; the Chippewa (Ojibwa) of Saginaw, Michigan; the 
Seneca and others of New York; the Santee Sioux of Nebraska, and 
the Peah Ute of Colorado. 

It is regretted that no data could be obtained from the four reserva- 
tions where wild rice is now produced in greatest quantities, viz, those 
of Red lake, Pine point, Wild Rice river, and White Earth agency, 
all in Minnesota. 

Following is a list of Indian agencies at reservations where no 
wild rice grows, although the natives are within reach of what was 
once wild-rice territoiy, and many of them consumed the grain at an 
earlier period: 

Lower Brule agency, South Dakota. 
Cheyenne River agency, South Dakota 
Crow Creek agency, South Dakota. 
Pine Ridge agency, South Dakota. 
Yankton agency, South Dakota. 
Rosebud agency, South Dakota. 



Sisseton agency, South Dakota. 
Standing Rock agency, North Dakota. 
Devils Lake agency, North Dakota. 
Fort Berthold agency, North Dakota. 
Mackinaw agency, Michigan. 



Table B — Value of wild rice per bushel 
[Note of explanation — These values are obtained from Table A] 

Per bushel Per bushel 

1864 $5.00 1869 $4.00 

1866 $2. 00, 3. 00, and 4. 00 1870 $0. 60, 1. 20, 5. 00, 7. 00 and 10. 00 

1867 . $1. 00 and 2. 00 1871 $4. 25 and 5. 00 

1868 $2. 00 and 4. 00 



The following table will aid in showing how long and how largely 
the Indians in the wild-rice district have been able to maintain them- 
selves through natural production. Some idea may also be obtained 



.TENKS] 



STANDARDS OF LIFE 



1079 



as to what part wild rice played in the Indian food supply by compar- 
ing a certain tribe of Indians in Table A with the same tribe in Table 
C at about the same year. 

Table C — Standard of life of the various Indians who have produced wild rice, being an 
estimate of the standard of subsistence obtained by Indian civilized labor, Indian natural 
labor, and Government assistance 1 



Indians 



Year 



Indian 
civilized 
labor 



Indian 
natural 
labor 



Creeks, Indian Territory 

Kickapoo, Kansas 

do 

Peah Ute, Colorado 

Chippewa of Lake Superior 

All Michigan Indians, including 5 

Chippewa of Lake Superior 

Chippewa of Mississippi, Pillager, and Lake Winni- 

bigoshish 

Chippewa of Red Lake 

do 

All Leech Lake Indians, including 8 and 9 

Chippewa of Lake Superior, including 13 to 18 

Chippewa of Lake Superior in following bands: 

Red Cliff 

Bad River 

Lac Court Oreille 

Fond du Lac (Lake Superior) 

Grand Portage 

Bois Fort 

Santee Sioux, Nebraska 

....do 

....do 

Menomini, Stockbridge, and Oneida of Wisconsin 

Menomini, Wisconsin 

Coos, Umpqua, and Alsea of Oregon 

Entire Siletz agency, including the three of 24 

Chippewa of White Earth agency, Minnesota, in the 

following bands : Mississippi, Pembina, Ottertail 

and Pillager. (See 8) 

All Chippewa of Leach Lake, Red Lake, and White 

Earth agencies, including 8, 9, 10, 11, 26 



1875 
1875 
1881 
1875 
1875 
1877 
1881 

1875 
1875 
1877 
1877 
1875 

1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1875 
1877 
1881 
1875 
1881 
1875 
1881 



1878 
1881 



Per cent 
100 

50 
90 



Per cent 



40 
60 



50 
50 
40 
40 

65 
60 
10 
60 
50 
50 
35 
40 
70 
100 
90 
25 
65 



1 These figures are found in the Indian Affairs Reports for 1875, p. 122 et seq.; for 1877, p. 311 et seq., 
for 1878, p. 305, and for 1881, p. 290 et seq. 



Chapter V 



CONSUMPTION 
Nutrition 

Of the various authors quoted in this memoir not one has spoKen 
disparagingly of wild rice as a food. A few have observed that it is 
nearby as good as the white rice of commerce; a great many have said 
that it is fully as good, while still many others have said that it is 
better. A few of these observations will be presented later, when the 
various ways of preparing the grain for food are considered. 

In 1862 Mr Ed. Peters made a chemical test of the composition of 
the grain (Zizania aquatica), and Prof. F. W. Woll, chemist of the 
Agricultural Experiment Station at Madison, Wisconsin, made a simi- 
lar test for this memoir in 1899. These are the only tests which have 
been reported, and it is upon them that the positive statements of the 
nutritive qualities of wild rice are made. The following table (D), 
column A, shows that wild rice is more nutritious than the other native 
foods to which the wild rice producing Indians had access, viz, maize, 
green corn, corn meal, white hominy (substitute for Indian hominy), 
strawberries, whortleberries, cranberries, sturgeon, brook trout, and 
dried beef (substitute for dried or jerked buffalo meat). It shows also 
that it is more nutritious than any of our common cereals, as oats, 
barley, wheat, rye, rice, and maize. 

It is noticed that the wild rice is very rich in nitrogen-free extract; 
that is, carbohydrates, such as starch, sugar, etc., which are heat pro- 
ducers. In the economy of the animal body they are transformed 
into fat. They thus produce both heat and fat. Indeed, wild rice is 
seen to be richer in carbohydrates than anj^ other of the foods here 
mentioned, with the exception of white hominy — the hominy of com- 
meix-e. 

The last two specimens of wild rice mentioned in Table D were pro- 
duced by Indians and came from Lac Courte Oreille reservation, Wis- 
consin, while the first specimen probably was not, as the Indians do not 
consume the grain in the "original substance," and the "dried sub- 
stance," by Peters, is drier than the Indians prepared it — the water 
having been entirely removed. It is also noticed that the Indian-pro- 
duced wild rice is very rich in crude protein, or the albuminoids, 
1080 



BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 



NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIX 




B, BIRCH-BARK WINNOWING TRAY 



JENKS] 



COMPOSITION OF INDIAN FOODS 



1081 



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1082 WILD RICE GATHERERS 



OF UPPER LAKES 



[ETH. ANN. 19 



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JENKS] 



WILD RICE AS A FOOD 



1083 



which produce flesh. It is richer in flesh-producing substance than 
anv of the other foods given above, with the exception of sturgeon and 
dried beef. It is therefore true that wild rice is the most nutritive 
single food which the Indians of North America consumed. The 
Indian diet of this grain, combined with maple sugar and with bison, 
deer, and other meats, was probably richer than that of the average 
American family to-day. Of course this diet lasted a limited part of 
the year only. 

Ways of Preparing Wild Rice for Food 

Food suggests plenty and satisfaction. The witt} T and humorous 
after-dinner speeches of well-dined and well-wined men are, a natural 
overflow. Radisson presents a brief glimpse of a happy primeval 
banquet before the western Indian had learned to distrust the white 
man. He speaks of a friendship feast of the Dakota as follows: " Our 
fongs being finifhed, we began our teeth to worke. We had there a 
kinde of rice, much like oats . . . and that is their food for the moft 
part of the winter, and [they] doe dreffe it thus: fl'or each man a hand- 
full of that they putt in the pott, that fwells fo much that it can fuffice 
a man." 1 

The Indian is very fond of soups, and wild rice is commonly used 
by him to thicken food of this kind quite as commercial rice is used by 
the whites. Early in the eighteenth centuiy Neill wrote of the Dakota 
Indians: "Wild rice is a g - ood and very healthful food, very light and 
nourishing; it is excellent with game broth." 2 

On the same page this author also said that at the time these Indians 
buried their store of grain in the fall of the 3 r ear, " they also put some 
to rot in the water, and when they return in the spring the}' find it 
delicious." Ellis wrote of the use of wild rice in the early daj^s at 
Green bay, Wisconsin, as follows: "It is used to thicken their broth 
of venison, bear, fish, and fowl; it is "very nutritious and palatable." 3 
The wild rice of the Mississagua Indians of Rice lake, Ontario, is 
parched and "without further preparation it is often used by hunters 
and fishermen when out on expeditions. But more frequently it is 
made into soup and stews."* From Lake of the Woods comes a 
receipt for a wild-rice dish, which suggests a delightful flavor, as fol- 
lows: "A soup made of wild rice and blue berries is a very palatable 
dish, and eagerly sought after by those who have been living on salt 
food for several weeks." 5 The Potawatomi Indians, after pounding 
their grain, hull and all, and throwing it into a vessel of water, 
skimmed off the refuse hulls and made the remainder into a very 
palatable soup. 6 



1 Radisson, Voyages . . . , p.215. 

2 Neill, Memoir of the Sioux, p. 236. 

3 Ellis, Recollections, p. 266. 



4 Chamberlain, op. cit., p. 155. 

6 Hind, Narrative, pp. 96-97. 

0 Paddock, letter, January 20, 1899. 



1084 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.axx.19 



Some of the dishes of which wild rice forms a part, however, are 
not so suggestive of satisfaction to the palate of the white man ; and 
yet, most white people have eaten food less palatable than a stew or 
soup of wild rice and dog meat, notwithstanding its suggestiveness. 
It is a favorite dish with the Indian. After some of the customarv 
conflicts between the Ojibwa and Dakota in the wild-rice district, the 
following was recorded in 1840: '"The savage party [Ojibwa] also 
cooked some of the flesh of the Sioux with their rice." 1 The Sandj T 
lake Indians, according to Doty, have boiled the excrement of ra libit 
with their rice to season it, and they esteem it a luxury. To make 
this dish still more palatable — in fact, one of their highest epicurean 
dishes — they occasionally took a partridge, and, after having picked 
off its feathers, but made no further preparation, they pounded it to 
the consistenc}^ of jelly. It was then thrown into the dish and the 
whole was boiled. 2 

The following dish is not only palatable, but also veiy nutritious: 
"The Indian women used to make a favorite dish of wild rice, corn, 
and fish boiled together, and called Tassimanonny. I remember it 
to this day as an object of early love." 3 Marquette wrote that after 
winnowing the grain "they pound it to reduce it to meal, or even 
unpounded, boil it in water seasoned with grease, and in this waj', wild 
oats [wild rice] are almost as palatable as rice would be when not 
better seasoned." 4 Traill wrote of the Indians about Quinto bay, 
Ontario, as follows: "That night . . . cooked some of the parched 
rice, Indian fashion, with venison, and they enjo} T ed the novelty very 
much. It made an excellent substitute for bread, of which they had 
been so long deprived." 5 

The cooked grain is eaten plain, and is also a great favorite with the 
Indian when eaten with sweets, especially with maple sugar. School- 
craft tells us that it was boiled in water to the consistency of hominy and 
was eaten, unseasoned, with spoons. It is also sometimes roasted and 
eaten dry. He stated that it contains more gelatinous matter than the 
southern rice, and is very nutritious. 6 Hennepin said that the Indians 
used to boil their rice except during the time of hunting. "Les 
Sauvages en font leur provifion pour fubfifter une partie de Fannee en 
la faifant cuire en maniere de bouillie hors du temps de leur Chaffe." 7 
Flint wrote "The grain, that we have eaten, was as white, as the common 
rice. Puddings made of it tasted to us, like those made of sago." 8 
Carver stated that the Dakota "boil it and eat it alone"; that they also 

1 Neill, The Beginnings of Organized Society, p. 64. 

2 Doty, Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. vn, p. 199. 
3 Biddle, Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. i,p. 63. 

4 Shea, Discovery, p. 9. 

5 Traill, Canadian Crusoes, p. 185. 

6 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, p. 63. 

' Hennepin, Nouvelle Decouverte, p. 313* (fol.0*4). 
8 Flint, Geography and History, vol. I, p.85.. 



JENKS] 



WILD RICE AS A FOOD 



1085 



eat their meat and usualty their maple sugar alone. 1 Le Sueur spoke 
of two features of the feasts of the Dakota. He was invited to their 
wigwams, and, after their customary weeping ceremony "the chief 
offered him wild rice to eat, and according to their cuftom put the 
firft three fpoonfuls in to his [own] mouth." 3 The "Mandantons" 
(Dakota band) invited him to a great banquet where there were 100 
men, each with his plate. 3 

Hennepin and his companions were captured and adopted into 
Dakota families; after pipe smoking, in the ceremony of adoption, 
the principal chief gave them wild rice, presenting it on birch-bark 
dishes. The women had seasoned the food with sun-dried whortle- 
berries. He said that they were as good as currants — "ces Barbares 
nous donnerent a manger de la folle avoine, dont j'ai fait mention. 
II nous la prefenterent dans de grands plats d'ecorce de bouleau. 
Les femmes Sauvages l'avoient affaifonnee avec des bluez. Ce font 
des graines noires, qu'elles font fecher au Soleil pendant l'ete, & qui 
font auffi bonnes que des raifins de Corinthe." 1 He was also given 
wild rice with the smoked roe of fishes — " Aquipaguetin, qui m'avoit 
aclopte, ne me donnoit qu'un peu de folle avoine cinq ou fix fois la 
f emaine avec des oeuf s de poif f ons boucannez pour me nourir. Les 
femmes faifoient cuire tout cela dans des pots de terre." 5 Dablon 
said, "et la graisse melee avec la folle avoine, fait le mets le plus 
delicat de ce pais." 6 This was among the Maskotin. 

Hoffman wrote in 1892 that the Menomini Indians boiled their rice 
and ate it plain with maple sugar. It was also sometimes boiled with 
meat or vegetables, or a broth was made of it and was served as soup. 7 
Mr George Lawe wrote of these Indians in the early forties that their 
rice when boiled and eaten with maple sugar is very palatable and 
nutritious, and serves them instead of breadstuffs. 8 Reverend Chry- 
sostom Verwyst, a lifelong missionary among the Indians south of 
Lake Superior, says: "Wild rice is very palatable, and the writer and 
his dusky spiritual children prefer it to the rice of commerce, although 
it does not look quite so nice." 9 

The Indians at Lac Courte Oreille reservation, and doubtless all 
other wild rice producing Indians, will eat the grain cooked in any 
form in which they are able to pi*ocure it. During the three weeks 
following the harvest of 1899 I was daily, almost constantly, in their 
houses, wigwams, war-dance circle, and Mide' society lodge, and did 
not witness a meal in which wild rice was not consumed. In fact, 
during the eight days covered by their dances, when I saw them eat 
three or four times daily, wild rice, cooked in a manner similar to 

1 Carver, Travels, p. 262. 5 Ibid., p. 355. 

2 Shea, Early Voyages, p. 107. 0 Relations des Jesuites, 1671, p. 44. 
3 La Harpe, Journal, p. 66. " Hoffman, Menomini Indians, p. 291. 
4 Hennepin, Nouvelle Decouverte, p. 347. 8 Indian Affairs Report, 1843, p. 434. 

9 Verwyst, Historical Sites of Chequamegon Bay, in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xm,p. 429. 

19 ETH, PT 2—01 31 



1086 WILD E1CE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



oatmeal, and eaten alone, was their entire diet nearly every meal. 
At times also the rice was used to thicken venison and dog- stew. 

The white people near all the reservations in Wisconsin and Min- 
nesota, where wild rice is produced are, as a rule, very fond of the 
food. As a result of many personal interrogations I believe that 
fully 90 per cent of the white people who have eaten wild rice are 
fond of it. 

Both the Indians and the whites wash the grain three or four times 
before cooking. Sometimes a small quantity of soda is added to the 
water used in the' first washing. The green wild rice will cook by 
simply having boiling water poured over it. The parched wild rice 
needs to be cooked about half an hour, while the fire-cured or black 
wild rice requires nearly an hour for cooking. When it is cooked 
like oatmeal twice as much boiling water as rice is used. The grain 
cooked in this manner may be warmed over, and its flavor and whole- 
someness in no way impaired. In cooking it swells probably a little 
less than commercial rice, but a coffee-cup full, measured before cook- 
ing, will furnish a full meal for two Indians, or sufficient breakfast 
food for eight or ten persons. The grain is especially wholesome as a 
breakfast food served with sugar and cream; and when treated in any 
way with wild game, whether as a dressing, in soups or stews, or as a 
side dish dressed with the juices of the game, it is at its best, and is 
delicious and wholesome. 

John Long wrote of a baby food in which wild rice was the most 
important ingredient. He said that the northern Indian women fed 
their little children on rice and oats, which, when cleaned from the 
hull, were pounded between two stones, and boiled in water with 
maple sugar. "This food is reckoned very nourishing, and with 
broth made from the flesh of animals and fish, which the} r are fre- 
quently able to procure, can not fail of supporting and strengthening 
the infant.' 11 Hunter, who was a captive among the Osage Indians 
from childhood until the age of 19 3 r ears, in the first quarter of the 
present century, says of their treatment of cholera morbus: "They 
resort to the steam-bath and cathartics, after which they give copiously 
of a gruel made of wild rice, and wild licorice tea. They also apply 
fomentations to the stomach." 2 

Periods of Consumption 

The subject of mealtime is still open to study. Why it is that peo- 
ple of one nation have three meals regularly every twenty-four hours, 
while others have five, is a matter for sociologic speculation. As habits 
of industry become more fixed and the food supply comes more under 
control, mealtime correspondingly tends to become more regular. 

1 Long, Voyages and Travels, p. 61. 

2 Hunter, Captivity Among the Indians, p. J33. 



JENKS] 



WILD RICE AS A FOOD 



1087 



During the period when the food supply depended upon almost con- 
stant effort, meals were partaken of whenever the individual could 
obtain food. 

In this section will be brought together some facts as to the time of 
day and year when wild rice is consumed. It is natural to expect 
that most of it will be eaten immediately after harvest, for the Indian 
does not often save in large quantities or for a long period, especially 
in the case of food that he relishes greatly. However, since the fall 
hunts begin soon after the harvest, wild rice is generally quite exten- 
sively saved by those Indians whose hunting grounds are fruitful. 

Hunter says of the Osage Indians : ' ' The usual times of taking their 
meals, are at sunrise, noon, and sunset." When the days are long - and 
the food abundant, the grown people eat three meals daily, when the 
days are shorter but two meals are eaten, and when food is scarce 
they eat but one, and sometimes not even that. 1 According to School- 
craft the Dakota Indians have no regular mealtime. 2 

Pokagon, the late Potawatomi chief from the St Joseph river valley, 
Michigan, wrote in regard to this subject: "Indians eat when hungry." 
His people ate their rice in the fall and all the year if it lasted. 3 The 
Leech Lake Indians, in 1863, garnered their wild rice for use in mid- 
winter, when other food could not be obtained. 4 In 1813 the Menomini 
stored their wild rice in the ground "to betaken therefrom, and used, 
during the winter, as their necessities require. In times of scarcity 
of game, they subsist entirely upon it." 5 Radisson says that wild rice 
is the food of the Dakota "for the moft part of the winter." 6 

Pike wrote of the " Minowa Kantongs " (the Mdewaka n to n wa n band of 
the Dakota) that they cultivated a small quantity of maize and beans, 
but, although he was with them in September and October, he never saw 
one kettle of either, as they always used wild rice for bread. This 
production, he said, nature has furnished to all of the most unculti- 
vated tribes of the Northwest, so that they ma}^ gather enough, which, 
together with the products of the chase and the net, will insure them 
subsistence throughout the entire year. 7 

Of the wild-rice district in 1820, we read: "A few provident 
Indians save a little [wild rice] for the spring of the year to eat with 
their sugar, though generally by the time they have done curing it, 
the whole is disposed of for trinkets and ornaments." The author 
continues: "Thus by gratifying their vanity, they are left nearly des- 
titute of provisions for the winter — choosing rather to endure hunger 
and the greatest misery, than to mortify their pride." 8 

1 Hunter, Captivity, pp. 259-260. 4 Indian Affairs Report, 1863. 

2 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. IV, p. 67. 5 ibid., 1843, p. 434. 
3 Pokagon, letter, November 16, 1898. "Radisson, Voyages, p. 215. 
'Coues, Pike, vol. I, p. 344. 

8 Edward Tanner, Detroit Gazette, December 8, 1820; reprinted in Wisconsin Historical Collections, 
vol. vii, p. 199 et seq. 



1088 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES Leth.ann.19 



Warren says that in 1S62 the Ojibwa of Leech lake, Minnesota, 
gathered sufficient wild rice for winter consumption. 1 Carver wrote 
that the Indians saved the grain for an entire year. He speaks of the 
sacks of fawn skins and 3 r oung bison skins "wherein they preserve 
it till the return of their harvest." 2 In 1775 Alexander Henry wrote 
of obtaining wild rice from the Indians in Canada, immediately north 
of the wild-rice district in the United States, about ten months after 
their last harvest. 3 

Letters of inquiry sent to reservations on which Indians now use 
wild rice elicited no new facts as to the time of its consumption. The 
grain is very highly esteemed as a food, and is usually eaten at any 
and all meals until the supply is exhausted. 

1 Warren, History of the Ojibways, p. 186. 

2 Carver, Travels, p. 524. 

s Henry, Travels, pp. 241,243,244,251. 



Chapter VI 



GENERAL SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INTERPRETATIONS 
The Wild-rice Moon 

With primitive man, as with wild animals, there are two chief foci 
from which radiate the primary activities of the individual and his 
society. Both are connected with the processes of growth. The one 
is food getting, the other reproduction. Along these radiations the 
majority of life's battles are fought — along those from the first focus 
the individual struggles to survive; along those from the second he 
struggles that others may survive, that he may perpetuate his species. 
In the evolution of animal life these struggles may be classified 
roughly as, first, purely chemical; next, predominantly instinctive, 
and last, conscious. Attention is called to the struggle along the 
radiations from the food focus, and in this last, or conscious stage. 

The most fundamental and persistent want of man is that for food. 
It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that periods of food plenty should 
be recognized and marked conspicuously by suitable names. It is a 
worldwide custom of primitive people to name many months or moons 
of the year after that natural product which, by its abundance or useful- 
ness, or by other means, emphasizes itself for the time being above all 
other products. Wild rice at the time of its harvest is such a product, 
and it has given name to its harvest moon among many wild rice produc- 
ing Indians. In the Ojibwa language the September moon is called 
Manominike-gisiss or Manomini-gisiss, "the moon of the gathering 
of wild rice." 1 Schoolcraft gives the synonym Mon-o-nvm-e-geez-is, or 
" moon of wild rice," 2 as referring to the August moon. There need 
be no discrepancy here, for the harvest occupied parts of August, 
September, and October. Wilson gives muhnoomene-keezis, ' ' the wild 
rice moon," as another synonym for September. 3 In the Ottawa 
language, Menornonie-ka-we kee-zis, and in the Menomini language, 
Pohia-hun ka-zho, both mean "wild-rice-gathering moon. " 1 The Pota- 
watomi Indians have a moon called manominike-gises, or "the moon of 
gathering wild rice," 5 corresponding with late September and early 

1 Baraga, Dictionary. 

2 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. v, p. 569. 

3 Wilson, Manual of the Ojebway Language. Both Wilson and Baraga call August the bilberry 
or whortleberry moon. 

4 Tanner, Narrative, p. 321. 

5 Pokagon, letter, November 16, 1898. 

1089 



1090 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



October. All of these synonyms, except that in the Menomini 
language, are clearl}'- from the same root terms, viz, mano'min, wild 
rice, and Tceezis or gisiss, moon or month. 

In the language of the Dakota Indians, two moons, roughl}*- corre- 
sponding to our September and October, have received their names 
from wild rice. September is called Psin-na-ke-tu-wee, or "the ripe- 
rice moon," and October is designated Wa-zu-pee-wee, or Wee-wa-zu- 
pee, "the moon when wild rice is gathered and laid up for winter." 1 
Neill 2 gives the following synonyms for the same months: September 
is Psi?ihnaketu-wi, or "the moon when rice is laid up to dry," and 
October is Wi-wajv/pi, or Waziipi-wi, "the drying-i'ice moon." As 
early as 1828 Beltrami 3 cited the names for these two months. One 
of the words given by him is clearly a synon} r m of the above and the 
other is apparently so. As this author is an Italian it is easy to see 
that the difference may be due largely to spelling. However, he con- 
fused the words and called September Wasipi-oui, "the moon of oats," 
and October Sciwostap\-ou\ "the second moon of oats." Long gives 
Wajopi we or "commencement of wild rice" as the name for Sep- 
tember; and Sivshtaupl we or "end of wild rice" as the name for 
October.* Wenoakikshoo is also given as meaning "the moon when 
the wild rice is ripe." 5 

Thus, with the three great branches of the Algonquian stock in the 
district of the upper lakes — the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi — the 
autumnal harvest of wild rice was so important an event that at least 
one month was named from it. This is true also of the smaller tribe 
of the same stock, the Menomini, while the Dakota, of the Siouan 
stock, were so influenced in their household economy by this grain 
that two of their autumn months bear its name. 

Wild Rice in Indian Ceremony and Mythology 

The mythology of primitive people is usually an attempted explana- 
tion of phenomena, and for the purposes of comparison much credit 
may be attached to it. The following facts have been collected which 
show at what relative periods some of the Indians came into possession 
of wild rice. The first totem of the Menomini Indians was the Bear; 
consequently Bear is the name of the chief phratry. This bear came 
from the earth at Minikanisepe (Menomini river) between the upper 
peninsula of Michigan and Wisconsin, where the Bear phratry long 
resided. The second totem was the Eagle, which was at the head of 
the Big Thunder phratry, dwelling at Lake Winnebago. The Good 
Mystery made this phratry the laborers; they also brought rain. 

1 Gordon, Winona, p. 134, note. 3 Beltrami, Sources of the Mississippi, ii, p. '27-1. 

2 Neill, History of Minnesota, p. 86. •'Long, Narrative, vol. I, p. 422. 

5 Atwater, Indians, p. 170. This author says that the " Dacotas reckon time by lunations," but he 
mentions only seven months. 



JENKS] 



SPTEITUAL OBSERVANCES 



1091 



The Good Mystery gave them maize, and they were also the makers 
of fire. They visited the Bear phratiy, offering maize and fire in 
exchange for wild rice, which was the property of the Bear and the 
Sturgeon, and which grew abundantly along Menomini river. The 
bargain was concluded, and since that time the Bear and the Big 
Thunder phratries have lived together. 1 The Potawatomi of St J oseph 
river, Michigan, have a similar tradition. The Bear phratry gave 
maize and fire in exchange for wild rice. 2 The Winnebago say that 
the "Great Spirit" gave maize and wild rice to one man at the same 
time. 3 From the above, and from other facts known about these 
Indians, it seems plain that the Menomini came into possession of wild 
rice relatively early — that is, before the complete organization of the 
tribe — while the Potawatomi and the Winnebago obtained it at a 
much later time. 

The periods of the wild-rice harvest, as indeed of most opportuni- 
ties for social gatherings, are gala days to the Indians. Social pas- 
times and religious ceremonies are strangely commingled. Some of 
the ways in which the Indians express themselves at the rice harvest 
are here given, and others are presented which wild rice seems to 
characterize more or less distinctly. The Indians of White Earth 
reservation, Minnesota, give a rice feast. "The Manomin (wild rice) 
feast comes in the fall after gathering rice and before the winter hunt. 
It is a sort of thanksgiving, and prayers are offered to Manitou." 4 
The Ojibwa Indians in Canada, about Lake of the Woods, perform 
the following ceremony: "Before commencing to gather the rice they 
make a feast, and none are allowed to gather the grain till after it. 
They thank the Master of Life for the crop, asking him to keep off 
all storms while they are harvesting." 5 The first fruits gathered by 
the Dakota "are set apart for the purpose of a spiritual or holy 
feast; the first corn or wild rice of the season, the first duck or goose 
killed when they appear in the spring, are all reserved for the feast, 
at which those Indians only who are entitled to wear the badge of 
having slain an enemy, are invited." 6 Tanner, who spent all his life 
with the Ojibwa, continually speaks of such feasts. At the sacred 
dog feast on the White Earth reservation the Ojibwa Indians usually 
kill and stew a dog in rice; certain ceremonies, including a dance, are 
then performed, after which the dog is eaten. 7 Mr Long wrote of the 
"Poes" (Potawatomi) that they compelled their prisoner, Mr Ramsey, 
of the American Pur Company, to eat his death feast at the war kettle 

1 Hoffman, The Menomini Indians, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, part 1, 
p. 40. 

2 Pokagon, letter, November 16, 1898. 

3 Information from the Winnebago near Elroy, Wisconsin, winter of 1898-99. 

4 Eleventh Census of the United States; Indians, p. 346. 

5 Pither, letter, November 18, 1898. 

°Lockwood, Early Times and Events in Wisconsin, appendix 6, pp. 98-196, in Wisconsin Historical 
Collections, vol. ri, p. 181. 
'Eleventh Census of the United States; Indians, p. 346. 



1092 



WILD EICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



before he was to be tortured. The feast "consisted of dog, tyger-cat, 
and bear's grease, mixed with wild oats [wild rice]. 1,1 

Carver gives an account of a unique rice feast among the "Naudo- 
wessies" (Dakota). They paid uncommon respect to one of their 
women, and "They told me that when fhe was a j T oung woman, for at 
the time I faw her fhe was far advanced in life, fhe had given what 
the} r termed a rice f eaft. According to an ancient but almoft obfolete 
cuftom . . . fhe invited forty of the principal warriors to her tent, 
where having feafted them on rice and venifon, fhe by turns regaled 
each of them with a private defert, behind a fcrene fixed for this pur- 
pofe in the inner part of the tent." . . . " So fenfi.ble were the young 
Indians of her extraordinary merit, that they vied with each other for 
her hand, and in a very fhort time one of the principal chiefs took her 
to wife." . . . " It is however fcarcely once in an age that any of their 
females are hardy enough to make this feaft, notwithftanding a huf- 
band of the firft rank awaits as a fure reward the fuccefff ul giver of 
it; and the cuftom, I fince find, is peculiar to the Naudoweffies." 2 
The rice was used probably because, it was the greatest delicacy 
which could be set before guests. Yet it seems to have been the kind 
of food which alwa}^s characterized this extraordinary social function. 

As might be expected from the meaning of their name, the Menomini 
Indians are more deeply influenced by wild rice than are other wild 
rice producing Indians. Special investigation 3 has proved, according 
to Indian traditions, what the facts recently given from Dr Hoffman's 
report seemed clearlv to show, i. e., that the Menomini came into pos- 
session of wild rice at the very inception of their tribal organization. 
Ma'nabush, one of the numerous mythic half-god half -man personages 
of the myths of the Menomini Indians, created the bear, which came 
out of the earth at Menominee river (between the upper peninsula of 
Michigan and Wisconsin). Ma'nabush determined to make an Indian 
of the bear, and accomplished the feat at the end of four days. He 
called the Indian "Shekatcheke'nau," and made him the head of the 
Bear phratiy, the first phratry of the Menomini tribe. Then taking 
the Indian to the river he showed it to him and gave it into his hands, 
with all its fish, its great beds of wild rice, and many sugar trees along 
its banks. He said, "I give these things to you, and }^ou shall always 
have them — the river, the fish, the wild rice, and the sugar trees." 
Shekatcheke'nau answered, "I thank you. It is all right. I will 
always work for you." 

In a short time Wishki'no, the eagle, the thunderer, came from 
lake Winnebago to visit at Menominee river. He became the head 

1 Long, Voyages and Travels ... p. 146. 

2 Carver, Travels, pp. 245, 246. This paragraph, and other matter from this author, is given purely 
on Carver's authority; he is not so reliable on Indian subjects as could be desired, and this account 
of the rice feast savors strongly of the fabulous. 

3 Information from Menomini, at Menomini reservation, in the autumn of 1S99. 



JENKS] 



WILD-KICE TALES 



1093 



of the Big Thunder phratry, the second phratry of the Menomini 
tribe. The world mission of this eagle, whom Ma'nabush had also 
changed into an Indian, was to bring rain, and fire, and maize to 
men. When Shekatcheke'nau saw the eagle, he said, "I am glad to 
receive you. You will always stand by me. You will always be my 
warrior. You see everything — the river with fish, the beds of wild 
rice, everything — I turn all of these over to you." When the wild 
rice was ripe in the fall, the eagles, all decorated with feathers, had 
their canoes and rice sticks ready. After they had gathered four 
canoe loads, a thunderstorm came. It destroyed all of the grain 
which had not been gathered, and spoiled the beautiful feathers on 
the heads of the eagles. Then Wishki'no said to Shekatcheke'nau, 
" It won't do for you to give me the wild rice, for wherever I go there 
is thunder, and wind, and rain. I will give it all back to you, and 
you'd better control it always." So after that when rice harvest 
came Shekatcheke'nau called all of his people together, and they made 
a feast, and smoked, and asked the Great Spirit to give them fair 
weather during the harvest. Since then there has always been a fine, 
stormless harvest season. 

It is remembered that Ma'nabush told Shekatcheke'nau that he 
would always have wild rice. This fact has so influenced the Meno- 
mini Indians that they will not sow the grain. If the Great Spirit 
wants them to have it, it will grow of itself. According to their tra- 
ditions, when the tribe moved from Menominee river to Lake Winne- 
bago and vicinity, no wild rice grew there, but it soon came to supply 
their wants ; Lake Poy gan even being named by them. It is called " Po- 
wa-he'-canne" or "threshing [or] striking [wild rice]." Mr Gauthier, 
who was government interpreter for over forty years among the 
Menomini, said, in 1899, that the Indian agent who removed the tribe 
in 1852 from the vicinity of Lake Winnebago to their present reserva- 
tion, desired them to gather wild rice and sow it in their new home. 
At each council he sought to induce them, but they unanimously 
refused. Nio'pet, the very intelligent chief of the tribe, says that 
when they came to their present home, wild rice grew only in scatter- 
ing stalks in Shawano lake. In about ten years it was plentiful, and 
has been their annual harvest field since. He also says that it has 
nearly died out in the vicinity of Lake Winnebago, where previously 
they gathered it in great quantities. Then the old chief asked 
"Why?" and smiled satisfiedly as though he knew. 

Among the Ojibwa of Wisconsin wild rice is frequently spoken 
of in folktales. Generally it does not characterize these stories, but 
is mentioned as any other natural product might be. However, two 
tales were found among the Wenibojo' stories at Lac Courte Oreille 
reservation which explain the discovery of wild rice. Wenibojo', 
the mythic personage of the Ojibwa Indians (the same as Ma'nabush 



1094 



WILD KICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. a.nx.19 



of the Menomini), made his home with his grandmother, Noko'mis. 
One da,y the old woman told him that he ought to prove himself a 
manly fellow; he ought to take a long journey through unknown 
forests; he ought to go without food and get accustomed to the hard- 
ships of life. So Wenibojo' told her that he was going away, that he 
was going to fast; and taking his bow and arrows he wandered out 
into the forest. Many days he wandered, and finally came to a beauti- 
ful lake full of wild rice, the first ever seen. But he did not know 
that the grain was good to eat; he liked it for its beauty. He went into 
the forest and got the bark from a large pine tree. From this bark 
he made a canoe with which to gather the grain. After the canoe was 
made, he went to Noko'mis, and they both came and gathered the rice, 
and sowed it in another lake. He then left Noko'mis hj this lake of 
sowed wild rice, and, taking his bow and arrows, started away again 
into the forest. As he wandered along some little bushes spoke to him 
and said: "Sometimes they eat us." Wenibojo' at first paid no atten- 
tion to the address, but finally he said: "Who are you talking to?" 
On being told that he was the one addressed, he stooped down and dug 
up the plant. He found a long root, as long as an arrow. It tasted 
very good to him, so he dug and ate a great many of the roots. He 
ate so many that he became sick, and lay there three days too ill to 
move. When finally he got up, he wandered on. He became very faint 
and hungry; other plants spoke to him, but he was afraid to eat them. 
At last he was passing along the river, and saw little bunches of straw 
growing up in the water. They spoke to him and said: "Wenibojo', 
sometimes they eat us." So he picked some of it and ate it, and said: 
"Oh, but you are good! What do the}" call you?" "They call us 
mano'min [wild rice] ," the grass answered. Wenibojo' waded out into 
the water up to his breast and beat off the grain, and ate and ate, 
but this time he was not sick. Finally he remembered the wild rice 
which he and old Noko'mis had sown, so he returned home to his 
mano'min lake. 

The other tale of the origin of wild rice is taken from a series of 
experiences of Wenibojo'. One evening he returned from hunting, 
but he had no game. As he came toward his fire he saw a duck sit- 
ting on the edge of his kettle of boiling water. After the duck flew 
away Wenibojo' looked into the kettle and found wild rice floating 
upon the water, but he did not know what it was. He ate his supper 
from the kettle, and it was the best soup that he had ever tasted. So 
he followed in the direction which the duck had taken, and came to a 
lake full of mano'min. He saw all kinds of duck, and geese, and mud 
hens, and all other water birds eating the grain. After that, when 
Wenibojo' did not kill a deer, he knew where to find food to eat. 

It is a common belief on the Lac Courte Oreille reservation that 
the Ojibwa Indians first found wild rice on the Red river of the North, 



JENKS] 



INDIAN DEPENDENCE ON WILD RICE 



1095 



as far west, they say, as the Ojibwa ever dwelt. This was about six 
generations ago. As Warren said that they estimate a generation at 
forty years, it would be about 1660. Sixteen hundred and sixty is 
probably near the time the Ojibwa came into possession of wild rice as 
a food, for Warren has said that they left La Pointe island in Lake 
Superior and came south and west onto the mainland between 1612 and 
1671. On the Red river of the North the Indians used the grain and 
found it good. They gathered and sowed some at Snake river, Min- 
nesota. Then they sowed it at Shell lake, and so on to the east in Wis- 
consin. It was distributed eastward from one Indian to another until 
today it is found wherever the Ojibwa lives. 

Dependence of the Indian on Wild Rice 

The food of primitive men varies with the season of the year and 
the section of the country in which they are. They frequently live 
upon one staple at a time. In the region of the upper lakes three or 
four weeks in March, April, or May were given to the making of 
maple sugar, during which time the people often lived almost exclu- 
sively on this food. Indeed, Alexander Henry says of maple sugar 
making between April 21 and May 12, 1768, "We ate nothing but our 
sugar during the whole period. Each man consumed a pound a day, 
desired no other food, and was visibly nourished by it." 1 Soon the 
early berries were ripe, then green corn (maize) was edible, if the 
Indian cultivated it, and in September the wild rice came. Both in 
the spring and autumn wild fowl were countless in the vicinity of rice 
fields, and furred game and fish were plentiful all the year. The win- 
ter was the season for hunting, when stores of pemmican 2 were laid up. 

In some sections of the country the rice crop failed partly or wholly 
at frequent intervals. Information from such sources as Chief Poka- 
gon and government farmers at Indian reservations shows that it so 
fails once in three or four years. 3 Again, at Grass lake, Lake county, 
Illinois, where there are 1,000 acres of wild rice, it has not been known 
to fail in the last sixty years. 

These preliminary remarks have been thought necessary in order 
that the historical sketch and summaries which follow may not over- 
emphasize the value of wild rice in the household economy of the 
Indians and early whites, for of course other foods must here be 
largely ignored. 

Very positive evidence of the value of wild rice to the Indian comes 
to us from various Indian agencies. Mr D. P. Bushnell's report for 

1 Henry, Travels and Adventures, p. 218. 

2 Pemmican is lean buffalo meat dried and pounded fine, then mixed with melted fat and packed 
in buffalo skins. It hardens and will keep for years, but if exposed to moisture it soon becomes 
musty and unlit for use. One buffalo would make a sack of about 100 pounds. It is a very palatable, 
nourishing, and healthful food (Harmon). 

8 See page 1099 et seq. 



1096 



WILD KICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.anx.19 



1838 contains the following concerning the Ojibwa of Lake Superior 
and the Mississippi river: 

It is highly desirable that the annuity hereafter to be paid to the Chippewas 
should be paid between the 1st of June and last of August, [Some of these Indians 
had to make a total journey of 400 miles to get their annuity.] Their spring hunts 
are not finished before the former period, and they commence about the 1st of 
September to gather the wild rice, which is a great article of food with the interior 
Indians. As soon as they have finished gathering the rice, the fall hunt commences. 
If called together after the 1st of September, they will generally be more injured 
than benefited by the sum they receive. 1 

Mr Alfred Brunson, Indian Agent, La Pointe, Wisconsin, wrote 
Governor Dot\ T , under date of January 6, 1813, as follows: ''By the 
Chippeway treaty of 1837 these Indians are to receive $35,000 annually 
for twenty years, and by the treaty of 1842 they are to receive an 
additional annuity of 131,700 for twenty -five years, or a total annuity 
of $66, 700." "The annual products of these lands [between the 
Mississippi river and Lake Superior] are worth much more to the 
Indians than they are to receive .... The annual value of the furs 
are estimated at $25,000. There are about 1,000 families," who make 
$30,000 worth of sugar. "The same number of families average 25 
bushels of rice at $1, [which] is $25,000." Canoe material he figures 
at $10,000, and game and fish at $100,000, or a total natural produc- 
tion of $190, 000. 2 Subtracting the value of the canoe material and 
furs, we find that the value of the wild rice was about one-sixth of 
that of the total remaining (edible) production. 

The following protest, signed by "Martin, head chief of the Ottawa," 
representing Ottawa Lake, Chippewa River, and Lac Chetac bands, 
accompanied Brunson's letter (the conditions of the treaty of 1842 
were not understood by the chiefs when they signed it): '"We have 
no objection to the white man's working the mines & the timber & 
making farms. But we reserve the birch bark & cedar, for canoes, 
the Rice & Sugar trees & the privilege of hunting without being 
disturbed by the whites." 3 

Again, in 1843, Mr Brunson wrote to Governor Doty, under date 
of January 10: "But what is of more importance to the Indians than 
anything else, in reference to their payment, is the time & place of it " 
(the italicized words are underscored in the letter). ' ' But selecting this 
place [La Pointe] to pay the Inds. of the Mississippi, is next to rendering 
their payment a nullity: because they loose more by it than their pay- 
ments are worth to them. If taken away from their Rice harvests they 
loose more than the whole payment amounts to, say about $7 per head. 
And if taken away from their fall hunts, it amounts to the same thing." 
"If the payment of all the Chippewas must [underscored in letter] be 

1 Indian Affairs Report, 1838, document 20. 

2 Brunson, manuscript letter book, p. 25, in Wisconsin Historical Society's manuscript collection, 
a Ibid., p. 47. 



JENKS] 



INDIAN NEED OF WILD-KICE FIELDS 



1097 



at the Pointe . . . [they should be] paid not later than the first of 
July [in which case] they can reach their rice fields in time to harvest." 1 
One of the chief things the Indians desired in being located on 
reservations was the presence of rice fields, as is seen in the following 
cases. The first is a "Petition of the head chiefs of the Chippewa 
tribe of Indians on Lake Superior,''' February 7, 1849, as follows: 

That our people, to-vvit, sixteen bands, desire a donation of twenty-four sections 
of land, covering the graves of our fathers, our sugar orchards, and our rice lakes and 
rivers, at seven different places now occupied by us as villages, viz: At View Desert, 
or Old Garden, three sections; at Trout Lake, four sections; at Lake Cotere, four 
sections; at La Pointe, four sections; at Ontonagon, three sections; at La Ance, three 
sections; and at Pah-po-goh-mony, three sections. That we desire these lands for 
the purposes specified. 2 

In 1858 the agent at Fond du Lac (Lake Superior) wrote: 

The Indians at this place are disappointed and sore with regard to the boundary 
lines of their reserve [made according to treaty of September 30, 1854] . They state 
that the "Rice lakes" [Perch lake and others of its vicinity] which were to be 
included in their reservation have been entirely overlooked and left out, and they are 
unwilling to relinquish their claim to them. These lakes lie a few miles south of the 
present reserve, and abound in fish and wild rice, which constitute the principal 
subsistence of these Indians, and their attachment to them is very strong. . . . 
They wished me to say to their Great Father that they are willing to give up a large 
portion of the land contained in the present reserve if he will attach to the remainder 
the coveted lakes. 3 

The agent for these Indians reported, November 29, 1860, that the 
reservation should have included "Perch lake" which was the only 
section of the country where they could support themselves the year 
round. There they obtained an abundance of " field-rice and fish," 
sugar, and game. There also was their chief settlement. After the 
boundary was made to include this lake, he said: 

It was gratifying to us to witness the pleasure with which the Indians received the 
intelligence that their farms and rice fields had at last been secured to them, and 
that they might now go on and cultivate their lands and garner their rice without 
the fear of being molested or driven away by the white man. 

In 1863 Hole-in-the-day (Ojibwa chief) spoke for his people at St 
Paul, June 7, as follows (they had been moved from Wisconsin to 
Minnesota, and he asked that they might be removed to a new reser- 
vation): " Say that strip of land lying on the Wild Rice river between 
47° and 48° north latitude, and east of the Red river. There is every 
advantage of good soil, game, fish, rice, sugar, cranberries, and a 
healthy climate." He asked for a land that will " combine all the ele- 
ments of comfort and content to our people; that is, good land, game, 
fish, rice, sugar. Here we have neither, to any considerable extent. 

1 Brunson, manuscript letter book, p. 50, in Wisconsin Historical Society's manuscript collection. 
These last facts Mr Brunson also wrote under date of July 20, 1843, to Robert Stuart, Acting Superin- 
tendent Indian Affairs at Detroit; see manuscript letter boot, p. 104. 

2 House Misc. Doc. 36, Thirtieth Congress, second session. 
* Indian Affairs Report, 1858, p. 48. 



1098 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



True, we may find a little rice and a few fish, but not sufficient for my 
people, not enough to save them from starvation." 1 

In 1865 the agent speaks of the impracticability of moving the Mis- 
sissippi and Mille Lacs bands of Chippewa to the Red lake country. 
After speaking of the scarcity of good land and sugar trees, he con- 
tinued: "There is another great item which must not be overlooked; 
that is, there are no rice fields in that country, ... or fishing 
lakes." 2 

A letter from La Pointe agency, Ashland, Wisconsin, September 10, 
1891, is as follows: 

In many of the streams and lakes of these reservations wild rice grows luxuriantly. 
This important cereal is carefully harvested by the Indians, and constitutes an 
important part of their subsistence stores. It is palatable and nutritious, and by 
many white people is preferred to the white rice of commerce. The rice fields are 
the resort of numerous wild fowl, which are captured by the Indians and either con- 
sumed at home or sold in the neighboring towns. The revenue thus derived from 
the rice fields renders them a very important part of the Indian domain. 3 

This recent testimon}- of the value of wild fowl to the Indian sug- 
gests their much greater utilit} r in past years; and such in fact the 
following citations prove. When it is remembered that wild fowl are 
to day relatively scarce, that through the Central States the sight of 
any considerable number of wild pigeons is rare, even to one skilled in 
woodcraft, but that our fathers yet living saw them in such flocks that 
they shut out the light of the sun, a better perspective will be obtained 
for judging of the number and value of wild fowl when the Indian and 
his natural foods were undisturbed by the white man. We read of 
the Indians of White Earth reservation in 1890, that from August to 
December they hunt duck, which are found in countless numbers 
around all the wild-rice lakes. 4 Near the middle of the century wild 
fowl, as geese, duck, teal, etc. , were reported in vast quantities, feed- 
ing on wild rice along Green bay, 5 Minnesota river, 6 Winnipeg river, 7 
and Lake Winnebago 8 and vicinity. 

Carver, 9 in 1766, '67, '68, says the "geefe, ducks, and teal . . . . 
which refort to it [Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin] in great numbers, are 
remarkably good and extremely fat, and are much better flavored than 
thofe that are found near the fea, as the} r acquire their excef five fatnefs 
by feeding on the wild rice." 

1 Indian Affairs Report, 1863, p. 329 et seq. 

2 Ibid., 1865, p. 446. 

3 Indian Affairs Report, 1891, p. 471. 

4 Eleventh Census of the United States: Indians, 1890. See also Grasses and Forage Plants of the 
Dakotas, by Thos. A. Williams, p. 17. 

5 Biddle. Recollections of Green bay in 1816-17, in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. I, p. 63. 
6 Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage, pp. 331, 335, 336. 
7 Henry Youle Hind, Narrative, pp. 115, 116. 

8 Caleb Atwater, Indians of the Northwest, p. 181; see also Life of George Copvay, p. 65, for 
immense flocks of duck feeding on the wild rice each fall in Rice Lake, Ontario, Canada; also Ellis, 
Recollections, concerning wild fowl in Wisconsin rice fields. 

'-' Carver, Travels, pp. 37-3S; see also p. 522. 



JENKS] 



FAILURES OF CROP 



1099 



Hennepin, 1 in 1697, speaks of flocks of duck, swan, and teal which 
devour the rice at Mille Lacs: "Les femmes [Ojibwa Indians] en Kent 
plufieurs tiges [of wild rice] enfemble avec des ecorces de bois blanc, 
pour empecher que la multitude des Canars, des Cignes, & des Sar- 
celles, qui s'y trouvent ordinairement, ne la mangent toute." 

Dablon speaks of clouds of swans, bastards, and ducks which he 
saw in Green b&y in 1670. The Indians caught them in nets, often 
taking fifty in one night. 2 

It is unnecessary either to emphasize the value of these fowl as food 
to the Indian or to call attention to the fact that the fowl were plen- 
tiful largely because the wild rice offered them such abundant, whole- 
some food, but the following point might be overlooked. These fowl 
were really gleaners, and picked up and preserved in most delicious 
form the grain which otherwise the Indian would have lost entirely. 
Heavy waterfowl could not do very great damage to the standing plant, 
and while the grain was standing the Indian must gather his harvest. 
When the kernels shelled out into the water they were loss to the 
Indian, but gain to the fowl, which picked them up by diving to the 
bottom. It is interesting and instructive to note that of the illustra- 
tions cited in the chapter on production, all except the last two — 
from the Chicago Tribune, October 6, 1898, and Bressany — show the 
Indian as busied in capturing wild fowl while the Indian woman 
gathers the grain. 

Further evidence of the value of wild rice to the Indian, and of his 
dependence on it, is found in the following negative testimony. In 
all of these cases the Indian, for one reason or another, is unable to 
get his accustomed supply. In some sections of the country the rice 
crop fails partially or wholly as often as once in three or four years, 3 
while in other sections it has not been known to fail for long periods of 
time. 4 The reason for this difference is doubtless found in the nature 
of the most frequent cause of failure, viz, drowning by high water. 6 

1 Hennepin, Nouvelle D6couverte, p. 313* (fol. 0*4). 
^Relations de JiSsuites, Dablon, 1670, p. 96. 

3 Chief Simon Pokagon of the Potawatomi, St. Joseph county, Michigan, says " once in four years" 
(letter, Nov. 16, 1898). N. D. Rodman, Government farmer in charge of Lac Courte Oreille reserva- 
tion, Wisconsin, says "once in three years" (letter, Nov. 11, 1898). Stephen Gheen, Government 
farmer, Vermilion Lake (Nett Lake) reservation, Minnesota, says crops fail "wholly about every three 
years" (letter, November 15,1898). 

4 Peter Phalon, Government farmer, Fond du Lac reservation, Minnesota, says, "complete failure of 
crop never occurs. Crop some seasons is so small it would not pay to gather, there being barely 
enough for seed . . . After such failures it takes two years to grow a full crop . . . Every alternate 
year a full crop may be expected, provided no floods occur . . . After a heavy crop one year must 
elapse before the old straw, necessarily remaining in the beds, decays, thus making room for a full 
new crop" (letter, December 27, 1898). Roger Patterson, Government farmer, Bad River reservation, 
Wisconsin, says " the crop never totally fails, but small crop occurs about once in three years" (letter, 
November 23, 1898). 

5 Henry Youle Hind, Narrative, p. 119; Indian Affairs Report, 1867, pp. 341, 342; ibid., 1870, p. 309; ibid., 
1871,p.597 et seq.; ibid., 1880, p. 175; R. J. N. Pither, letter from Rat Portage, Ontario, Canada. Mr 
Pither was twenty-five years Indian agent, and the same length of time Hudson Bay Company's 
trader; N. D. Rodman, op. cit: Stephen Gheen, op. cit; Peter Phalon, op. cit.; Roger Patterson, op. cit.; 
McKenney, Tour of the Lakes, p. 337. 



1100 



"WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.asmt.19 



Where high water is never or seldom possible, failures must be less 
frequent. Frosts also destroy the young plant: 1 while, when the grain 
is ripe, a storm of a few hours will thresh out into the bottom of the 
lake or river an entire crop: ' 2 or. if the storm occurs while the stalk is 
green and tender, it will be bent over into the water, from which it can 
not rise again. 3 

Sir John Eiehardson wrote that in 1847 multitudes of caterpillars 
spread like locusts over the neighborhood of Rainy river. "They 
destroyed the Folle avoine [wild rice] on Rainy lake," though they 
did not touch wheat. 4 A letter dated "American Fur Company "s 
establishment. Fond du Lac" (Lake Superior). August 8, 1826. speaks 
of a freshet the previous spring. It " destroyed the wild rice — and 
this makes our visit with the supplies we have brought with us so 
opportune . . . We are here at a moment of the utmost need of the 
poor Indians." 5 

In 1849 the rice crop of the Pillagers (Ojibwa of Leech lake, Minne- 
sota, numbering about 1.050) entirely failed, and on this article they 
depended mostly for their winter's support. •'Hunger and starvation 
menace them: and in order to procure means of subsistence their hun- 
ters this winter will be forced to press westward till they find the buf- 
falo." 6 The Ojibwa of Sandy lake, Minnesota, numbering about 300, 
lost their rice both in 1849 and in 1850. The majority of them passed 
their winters in the vicinity of Crow Wing and Fort Gaines, Minne- 
sota, on ceded lands, hunting and begging for a living. 7 The "Sug- 
wun-dug-ah-win-in-e-wug" (Ojibwa in Minnesota north of Lake Supe- 
rior) also'lost their rice crop in 1850. " and this people anticipate with 
aching hearts the sufferings and privations of the approaching winter. "' 8 
The.se Indians also depended much upon rabbit and reindeer for winter 
consumption. 

Mr Hind, in passing down the Rainy lake waterway in 1857. said 
that the Indians he met lamented the failure of the rice that year, and 
this failure, together with poor fishing and extraordinary mortality 
among the rabbits, threatened them with famine during the coming 
winter. 9 September 30, 1867, the agent of the Ojibwa of the Missis- 
sippi (Minnesota), wrote that the rice crop appeared likely to be almost 
an entire failure. ^This is a great calamity to the Indians, as they 
depend largely upon it for subsistence, and I fear suffering will ensue 
in consequence." 1 " The Ojibwa of Lake Superior (Wisconsin) lost 
their crop both in 1869 and 1870 and are •"compelled to scatter over 

1 Chief Pokagon. op. fit. 

- Dr Morse. Report, appendix, p. 52. 

3 Roger Patterson, op. cit. 

* Henry Youle Hind. Narrative, p. 93. For further causes of failure, see chapter on botany, section 
"Natural Enemies." 
5 McKenney. Tour of the Lakes, p. 337. 5 Ibid., p. 59. 

'Indian Affairs Report. 1S50. p.57. ! 'Henry Youle Hind, Narrative, pp 118. 119. 

' Ibid., p. 56. ^'Indian Affairs Report, 1S67, pp. 341, 342. 



JENKS] 



FOOD OF EAKLY WHITES 



1101 



the country and seek such subsistence as accident may offer them." 1 
Of the Bad River Indians (Ojibwa of Wisconsin) in 1880, we read: 
"The rice crop will be a failure, and the Indians depend upon this for 
winter use and also for means of obtaining such articles as they need 
and are not furnished by the Department." 2 

Comment is unnecessary in the face of such testimon}^. All shows 
that the failure of the crop was so infrequent that the Ojibwa Indians 
depended upon wild rice for their winter subsistence, and that its loss 
could not be made up by any other resource of natural production. 

Dependence of the White Man on Wild Rice 

Carver wrote, in 1766, in regard to the use of wild rice by the whites: 

In future periods it will be of great fervice to the infant colonies, as it will afford 
thern a prefent fupport, until in the courfe of cultivation other fupplies may be 
produced. 3 

Again, in 1828, Timothy Flint said: 

It is astonishing, amidst all our eager and multiplied agricultural researches, that 
so little attention has been bestowed upon this interesting and valuable grain. It 
has scarcely been known, except by Canadian hunters and savages, that such a grain, 
the resource of a vast extent of country, existed. It surely ought to be ascertained, 
if the drowned lands of the Atlantic country, and the immense marshes and stagnant 
lakes of the south, will grow it. It is a mistake, that it is found only in the northern 
regions of the valley. It grows in perfection on the lakes about Natchitoches, south 
of 32°; and might, probably, be cultivated in all climates of the valley. Though a 
hardy plant, it is subject to some of the accidents, that cause failure of the other 
grains. 4 

White men have used this grain chiefly in and near the wild-rice 
district, yet "in some parts of the Bay [Quinto bay, Ontario, Canada] 
there grew wild rice, which was much prized by the Indians, and which 
was often used by the settlers .... The grain was much smaller 
than the imported article; not unfrequently, the Indians would collect 
the grain and sell it to the settlers." 5 

Alexander Henry said that on July 20, 1775, at Lake Sagunac or 
Saginaga, 60 leagues from Grand Portage, he bought fish and wild rice 
"which latter they [the Indians] had in great abundance." 11 July 30, he 
recorded at "Lake des lies," or Lake of the Woods, that fish appeared 
to be their summer food. He found there a village of 100 people, 
by whom 20 bags of wild rice were given him, and he obtained there 
a total of 100 bags of nearly one bushel each. He says that without 
a large quantity of rice the voyage beyond the Saskatchewan river 
could not have been prosecuted to its completion. 7 Again, August 1, 

1 Indian Affairs Report, 1870, p. 309. 3 Carver, Travels, pp. 522-524. 

2 Ibid., 1880, p. 175. * Flint, Geography and History, vol. I, p. 85. 
5 Carniff, History of the Settlements of Upper Canada (Ontario), with special reference to the Bay 

Quinte, Toronto, 1869, pp. 587-588. 
e Henry, Travels, p. 241. Ubid., pp. 243, 244. 



19 ETH, PT 2—01 35 



no2 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



he purchased wild rice on a sandy island in Lake of the Woods. 1 And 
August 16, at Lake Winnipegon, or Winipec (Winnipeg) the Indians 
"made me the usual presents of wild rice and dried meat." 2 All of 
this rice mentioned by Henry was of the harvest of some preceding 
year. It is very remarkable that onty one month before a new harvest, 
a village of 100 people could produce a bushel of rice per capita. No 
better testimony than Henry's could be given for the dependence of 
traders upon wild rice during those early years. 3 

Early in January, 1778, the provisions at the trading station at 
Lac la Mort gave out, so John Long, the trader, made a journey of 
several days to Lake Monontoye (this journey was south toward Lake 
Nipegon, north of Lake Superior), to try to get some wild rice of Mr 
Shaw, a fellow trader, as the Indians said it grew in swamps there. 4 
From Mr Shaw's station Mr Long returned in due time with "an 
Indian slay [sleigh] loaded with wild rice and dried meat." On Feb- 
ruary 23, 1778, "another band [of Indians] came in [to Lac la Mort] 
consisting of about eighty, men, women and children, who brought 
dried meats, oats [wild rice], bears' grease, and eight packs of beaver." 3 
Again Long said of Weed lake (Lake Schabeechevan) : 

On this lake there are about one hundred and fifty good hunters, who make a 
great many packs of beaver, &c. and this was one inducement for settling here, 
which was increased by the prospect of a plentiful supply of fish, rice, and cran- 
berries, which are winter comforts of too great consequence to be slighted. 6 

Mr Long wrote that the last of January, 1779, he was again 
reduced in provisions "to a few fish and some wild rice, or menomon 
(which are kept in muccucks or bark boxes), to support myself and 
seventeen men; the allowance to each being only a handful of rice and 
a small fish, about 2 lb. weight, which is boiled together and makes 
pleasant soup." 7 

Jean Baptiste Perrault's Indian Life in the Northwestern Region of 
the United States in 1783 (manuscript), as translated by Schoolcraft, 8 
says it was the custom for the traders to buy provisions (wild rice and 
dried meat) of the Indians. But during the winter of 1783 "the 
greater part of them [Indians around Leech lake, etc.] had gone to 
pass the winter in the prairies west of the Mississippi [where buffalo 
were then plentiful] . . . thej T had no wild rice, the abundant 
rains, having destroyed it." Notwithstanding this failure, early in 
May, 1784, these same Leech Lake Indians furnished two fawn skins 9 

1 Henry, Travels, p. 244. 2 Ibid., p. 251. 

3 Voyageurs in their journeys subsist on what ever they can find in the country through which they 
are passing, rarely taking enough to last them through. The great waterway from Lake Superior to 
the Northwest, by way of Grand Portage, along Lake of the Woods and the Winnipeg system, fre- 
quently furnished four different varieties of staple; the first stage furnished maize, the next rice, the 
third pemmican, the last buffalo meat (Coues, Henry-Thompson Journal, vol. II, p. 539). 

4 Long, Voyages and Travels, p. 58. 0 Ibid., p. 109. 

■' Ibid., pp. 75, 85. 7 Ibid., p. 117. 

sSchoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, p. 356. 

9 Ibid., vol. in, p. 356. Fawn skins were taken off nearly whole for use as rice sacks; see also the 
same work, p. 359. , 



JENKS] 



FOOD OF EARLY WHITES 



1103 



of wild rice, which had been saved from the harvest of some previous 
year. 

Pike, in 1805, 1 describes the Northwest Company's fort at Leech 
lake as being 60 by 25 feet, one and one-half stories high, with a loft 
extending over the entire building, and containing, besides bales of 
goods and peltries, "chests with 500 bushels of wild rice." The same 
author says of this company's station at Lake de Sable (Sand3 T lake) in 
1806: 

They raise plenty of Irish potatoes, catch pike, suckers, pickerel, and white-fish 
in abundance. They have also beaver, deer, and moose; but the provision they 
chiefly depend upon is wild oats, of which they purchase great quantities from the 
savages, giving at the rate of about one dollar and a half per bushel. 2 

Harmon wrote in 180-1: 

This grain is gathered in such quantities, in this region, that, in ordinary seasons, 
the North West Company 3 purchase, annually, from twelve to fifteen hundred 
bushels of it, from the Natives; and it constitutes a principal article of food, at the 
posts in this vicinity. 

In 1813 (probably) a party of 70 persons, composed of Hudson Bay 
Company traders, Indians, and John Tanner, made the trip from Rainy 
lake to the mouth of the Assinneboin river. They had Indians as 
hunters to accompany them, "and as we had great quantities of wild 
rice, we were pretty well supplied with food." 4 Colonel Robert 
Dickson, Indian agent for the British during the war of 1812-15, 
wrote to John Lawe of Green bay from Lake Winnebago, February 
14, 1811: "All I have left at present is 8 handfulls of foil avoin [wild 
rice] — 10 lbs. Flour —2 Shanks Deers legs three frozen Cabbages & a 
few potatoes." 5 

Still further light is thrown on the use of wild rice by the traders 
from the three following extracts. Mr Doty wrote to Governor Cass, 
under date of November, 1820, of the Indian trade on and about Sandy 
lake, Aitkin count}', Minnesota: "A skin is estimated at $ 2 . . . The 
articles received from the Indians are sugar, rice, furs. A mocock 
of sugar, weighing about forty pounds, is received for four skins; a 
sack of rice, two skins;" etc. "The American South West Fur Com- 
pany have the chief trade of this country." They sent in packs from 
Leech lake, Sandy lake, and Fond du Lac in the years 1819 and 1820.° 
The Detroit Gazette, of November 24, 1820, says: "The fish and the 
wild rice are the chief sustenance of the traders, and without them the 
trade could scarcely be carried on [in the Leech lake and Sandy lake 
districts]." 

^oues, Pike, vol. i, p. 282. 2 Pike, Expeditions, p. 60. 

3 In 1792 the Northwest Company operated all over the Ojibwa country in the United States. They 
had four departments: First, the Fond du Lac; second, the Folle Avoine, including the country 
drained by the St Croix river; third, the Lac Courte Oreille, including the country drained by the 
Chippewa river; fourth, the Lac du Flambeau, including the country drained by the Wisconsin 
river (Warren, History of the Ojibwas, chapter xxxiv). 

4 Tanner, Narrative, p. 219. 5 Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xi, p. 292. 

6 Morse, Report, p. 55. 



1104 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.an.nM9 



The section of country referred to in the following quotation pro- 
duced little, if an} T , maize, and at the time of the statement the bison 
were driven several days westward, so that about all the consumable 
provisions which the Indians could supply were wild rice and maple 
sugar. Robert Stuart, agent of the American Fur Company, wrote to 
George Boyd, agent for Indian affairs at Michilimackinac, asking 
permission to convey ' ' only twelve barrels of whiskey " into the 
country where they wished to extend their trade, "but the difficulties 
they have at present to contend with in extending their trade in a 
direction where the} 7 come in immediate contact with the Hudson Bay 
Company along the frontier, from the Grand Portage to the Lake of 
the Woods, the situation of the country, and the means of conve} T ance, 
complete^ preclude them from sending in provisions for the support 
of the people who are necessarily employed in transporting their goods, 
and for the prosecution of the trade. The Hudson Bay Company get 
most of their provisions from the Indians for liquor; and as long as 
those people have this in their power, our people must inevitably be 
starved." 1 

Doty says, quoted by Dr Morse in 1822: "The fish and the wild 
rice are the chief sustenance of the traders, and without them the trade 
could scarcely be carried on." 2 Schoolcraft, who gathered his facts 
during this period, says, in speaking of the wild rice, " Much of it is 
sold to the traders, to subsist their men, on their visits to the Indians." 3 

Again we hear from Leech lake in 1835 concerning Mr William 
T. Boutwell, a missionary: 

His remoteness from the white settlements exposes him to many inconveniences, 
and compels him to depend almost entirely on the fish of the lakes, and the wild rice 
gathered in the marshes and creeks, for subsistence; and these afford but a preca- 
rious supply. As game is every year becoming scarcer, and their rice so frequently 
fails, the Indians will soon be driven to the alternative of cultivating the land or per- 
ishing by famine. 4 

In the year 1852, Mrs Ellet, a traveler, was given by Mrs Ansell 
Smith, who resided near the Falls of the St Croix river, "a sack made 
by the Chippewas [Ojibwa] of braided strips of bark, in a shape rudely 
resembling a papoose, filled with wild rice which is one of the sta- 
ples of the territory . . . They [the Ojibwa] sell large quantities to 
the whites, some preferring it to the common rice of the south." 5 It 
is unnecessary to cite more instances, but wild rice has been used by 

1 Papers of George Boyd, vol. I, manuscript letter 117 (circa 1820), in Wisconsin Historical Society's 
manuscript collections. 

2 Morse, Report, appendix, p. 31. 

There were 17 trading posts about the headwaters of the Mississippi river in 1826. Six were of the 
Columbia Fur Company, 9 were of the American Fur Company. 1 was at Fort Green, 1 was a post fac- 
tory near Fort Snelling, on the St Peters (Minnesota) river (from a " Circular [from] Indian agency 
on St Peters (Upper Mississippi) , 2d April. 1826," in Papers of George Boyd, vol. II, manuscript 90). 

"Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. m. p. 63. 

< Indian Bulletin for 1868, number 2, p. 102. 

5 Mrs Ellet, Summer Rambles, pp. 151,152. 



JENKS] 



FOOD OF WHITES TODAY 



1105 



settlers and traders to the present time. If it could be cultivated with 
any certainty it would long ago have become a staple in America for 
the white population, as it was a staple for rnaiw thousand Indians 
before them. It will be interesting to notice its present use, for which 
purpose a few citations are presented. 

Wild rice was offered for sale in 1896 in several towns in Wisconsin 
and Minnesota. Among those in the former state were Rice Lake, 
Chetek, and Cumberland, in Barron county, Bloomer in Chippewa 
county, Shell Lake in Washburn county, and ILvyward in Sawyer 
county. In Minnesota it was sold in Bermidji and Park Rapids in 
Hibbard county, in Tower, St Louis county, in Grand Rapids, Itasca 
county, and in Minneapolis. Besides in the above markets it is also 
sold at the various Indian reservations and at towns in their vicinity. 1 
Mention is made that it has been shipped quite extensively, during the 
past few 3 r ears, from Chetek to Menomonie, Chippewa Falls, and other 
places, and Mr C. W. Moore retailed in Chetek, in 1894, about 1,500 
pounds. His letter 2 also states that "all old l'esidents of Barron and 
Dunn counties are very fond of it." Mr Charles C. Oppel, 3 of C. H. 
Oppel & Sons, wholesalers and retailers in Duluth and Tower, Minne- 
sota, wrote from Tower: "Most of the cruisers, explorers, and home- 
steaders take it [wild rice] out into the woods with them. They claim 
that it is better than tame rice, because it don't take so long to pre- 
pare it. We also ship considerable; fact is, we handle from 1 to 2 
tons a season." Mr J. A. Gilfillan 4 wrote from White Earth, Min- 
nesota: "Among whites in Minnesota it is used only by missionaries 
and their families, old Indian traders, and very old settlers, and by a 
few merchants along the line of the St Paul Railroad." It is used in 
various lumber camps in the regions where it grows, and is also sold 
to gun clubs quite extensively; the}^ plant it in small lakes as food for 
waterfowl. Besides the dealers above mentioned, Currie Brothers, 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, advertise it in their Horticultural Guide for 
1899. They have sold it in small quantities, one or two hundred 
pounds a year, for the past ten years. 5 L. L. May & Co., of St Paul, 
Minnesota, advertise it in Farm and Floral Guide for 1899. This latter 
firm sells about 3,000 pounds during the season. 6 All of the grain 
thus sold is gathered by the Indians. 

The foregoing facts are sufficient to show that wild rice was a valu- 
able and valued food to the pioneer whites of the northwest. It must 
be regretted that so nutritious a cereal was a precarious crop and has 
not, apparently, warranted extensive cultivation. 

1T . am indebted to Mr Gardner P. Stickney, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for the use of manuscript 
letters concerning most of the facts here presented about the present use of wild rice by the whites. 
2 C. W. Moore, letter, Chetek, Wisconsin, April 29, 1896. 
3 Charles C Oppel, letter, Tower, Minnesota, May 4, 1896. 
* J. A. Gilfillan, letter, White Earth, Minnesota, May 4, 1896. 
5 Currie Brothers, letter, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, May 6, 1X99. 
6L. L. May & Co., letter, St. Paul, Minnesota, May 10, 1899. 



1106 



WILD EICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. an.n.19 



Indian Population of the Wild-Rice District 

It is believed that the section of country in the United States which 
grew wild rice so abundantly — that is, the northeastern and northern 
parts of Wisconsin and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi 
river — sustained an Indian population equal to all the other country 
known as the Northwest territory, viz, all those States lying between 
the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and Lakes Superior and Huron. 
This would include southwestern Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, 




Fig. 48 — Map showing areas whose population is compared. 



and Michigan (see figure 18). This statement applies to the period 
when the Indian lived by aboriginal and not by civilized production. 
Estimates of the Indian population will be presented to substantiate 
the belief. Roughly speaking, the wild-rice district is about one-fifth 
of the entire territory considered. 

Mr S. S. Hebberd 1 said of this section of the United States: 

In fine, the six States lying east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio — 
excluding Northeastern Wisconsin 2 — contained a population in 1670, of less than 



1 Hebberd, History of Wisconsin under the Dominion of France, p. 3'2 et seq. 
2 There are only live States in the included territory. 



JENKS] 



INDIANS AT GREEN BAY 



1107 



twelve hundred warriors [1,200] or eight thousand [8,000] souls . . . Turning now 
• to Northeastern Wisconsin we behold a wonderful contrast. Stretched along both 
sides of Green Bay and the Fox river as far south as Green Lake county was a terri- 
tory about one hundred and thirty-rive miles long and of an average width of thirty 
miles, which fairly teemed with human life. In the North, and on the islands and 
along the eastern shore of Green Bay, were the Pottawattamies, a docile people, 
with a keen instinct for trade, who were seeking to become the middlemen in the 
commerce between the French and the tribes farther west; they numbered not less 
than five hundred warriors [500]. 1 Across the bay were the Menominees, settled 
upon the river of the same name, a brave but peaceful people. 

Charlevoix said of the Menornini, 2 " they are very fine men and the 
best shaped in all Canada." Cadillac is very flattering- in his remarks 
of them. 3 At the mouth of the Fox river was a mixed village gathered 
from four or five different tribes; a little distance up the river were 
the Winnebago. Mr Hebberd thinks that the number of the Winne- 
bago, Menornini, and of the mixed village, could not have been less 
than 600 warriors. On the west side of Fox river were the Sauk, who 
numbered 400 warriors. A little way up the Wolf river were the Fox 
Indians, who numbered about 800 warriors, while southwest of these, 
on Fox river, was the great palisaded town where the Maskotin and 
Miami dwelt peacefully together. "Farther on, enveloped in the 
wild rice marshes, were other towns of the Kickapoos and Mascoutins; 
all of these tribes together could not have numbered less than the 
Foxes [800 warriors]." 4 " Here then in this narrow strip of territory 
was a population of thirty-one hundred [3,100] warriors, or at least 
twenty thousand [20,000] souls, nearly three times the number that 
roamed in the vast expanse of surrounding solitude." 5 

Nothing is claimed for the absolute value of the figures in the fol- 
lowing estimates. Only their relative value is here considered. 
Inasmuch as the figures in each table are taken from the same investi- 

1 Hebberd based his estimate, in part at least, on the statement that 300 warriors from this tribe 
came to Allouez atone time at Chequamegon bay (Allouez, Relations des Jesuites, 1667). 

Pere Gabriel Dreuillettes said that they had 700 warriors, or 3,000 souls; besides, there were with 
them 100 men of the Tobacco nation (Relations des Jesuites, 1658, p. 21). This statement seems fully 
to justify Mr Hebberd's estimate. 

2 Charlevoix, Journal, vol. Ill, letter XX, pp. 291, 292. 

3 "Les Malhominy ou Folles Avoines sont ainsiappelez a cause de la riviere oil leur village est situe, 
qui produit une quantity prodigieuse de folle avoine, qu'ils recueillent et ramassent comme nous 
faisons nos bleds . . . Cette nourriture est saine ... lis ne sont pas si bazanez que les autres, et s'ils 
ne se graissoient pas, ils surpasseroient les Francois en blanchcur. Les t'emmes sont aussi assez jolies 
et plus humaines que celles de leurs voisins " (Margry, Decouvertes, vol. v, p. 121). 

4 Perrot, Memoire sur les Moeurs . . . des Sauvages, p. 127, gives the population of the principal 
town of the Maskotin and Miami as 4,000 souls; and Allouez, Relations des Jesuites, 1670, gives it as 
800 warriors. See also map of the year 1670-71, in Relations des Jesuites, for distribution of Indian 
tribes in the Green bay district. 

5 From facts already given, Mr Hebberd seems justified in his estimate of the Indian population in 
the wild-rice district of eastern Wisconsin about the year 1670. At any rate, the thesis of this para- 
graph, which Mr Hebberd's facts are here given to substantiate, can hardly be doubted thus far. 
The population of the wild-rice district of the sources of the Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St Croix 
rivers, of the eastern branches of the Mississippi river, and the southern and western feeders of 
Lake Superior is not numbered in his estimate. At a very low figure it had 8,000 souls. 

For the disposition of these various tribes see Map of New France (parts of the United States and 
Canada) 1616-1791, to illustrate The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, with volume I of Thwaites' 
edition of Jesuit Relations. 



1108 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



gator, such a comparison is certainly legitimate. The estimates were 
not made for any such purpose as that for which they are here used, 
and there was nothing to bias the mind of the investigator in favor of 
one part of the territory against another. Where the estimates are 
large, they are so throughout, and vice versa. Thus their relative 
value is unimpaired. 

Table E— Bouquet's estimate of Indian population hi 1764 1 

A— INDIANS IN THE WILD-RICE DISTRICT 



Pres de la Baie des Puants: 

Puans ' 

Folle-Avoine 

[Unknown.] Au Sud de la Baie des Puants: 

Mechecouquis 

Sakis 

Mascoutens 

Ouifconfins fur une riviere de ee nom qui tombe dans le Miffiffipi du 
cote de l'Est 

Pres des Lacs Sup<;rieur & Michigan: 

Chip was 1 5,000 

Ottawas.. 900 

[These Ottawa and, judging by other estimates, one-fifth of the 
"Chipwas" [Ojibwa] belong in Michigan; so there are left in 
the rice districts] 

Vers les fources du Miffifipi: 

Sioux des Prairie 2, 500 

Sioux des bois 1, 800 

[50 per cent of these were probably in the rice district] 

Grand total . . 



Warriors 



700 


3,500 


350 


1, 750 


250 


1,250 


400 


2,000 


500 


2,500 


550 


2,750 



2,150 



10, 750 



44, 500 



1 Bouquet, Relation Historique, p. 144, et seq. Bouquet estimated the warriors as one-fifth of the 
total population. The column "Total population " is calculated in accordance with this estimate. 



R — IXIHAXS IX THE REMAINING TERRITORY 



Powtewatamis, pres de St Jofeph & du Detroit 

Chipwas (see estimate for these Indians in rice district) 

Ottawas (see estimate for these Indians in rice district ) 

Miamis. fur la Riviere de ee nom, qui entre dans la Lac Erie . 

Delewares (les Loups) fur l'Ohio 

Sur l'Ouabache: 

Kickapoux . 

Ouachtenons [Wea] 

Panquichas [Piankishaw] 

Les Shawanefes, fur la Scioto 

Kaskafquias, on Ilinois en general, fur la Riviere des Ilinois . 

Pianria [Peoria] 

Wiandots, pr&s du Lac Erie 

Total 



350 
1,000 
900 
350 
600 

300 
400 
250 
500 
600 
800 
300 



1.750 
5,000 
4,500 
1,750 
3,000 

1,500 
2,000 
1,250 
2,500 
3,000 
4,000 
1,500 



31.7. r i0 



JENKS] 



INDIAN POPULATION 



1109 



Table F — Estimate of the Indian population in 1778, at the outbreak of the Revolution, 
by a trader who had resided many years in the vicinity of Detroit 1 

A— INDIANS IN THE WILD-RICE DISTRICT 





Warriors 


Total 
population 


Chippewees, about lake Huron, the upper parts of lake Michigan, 
and then northwest to the Mississippi, 5,000 (see estimate of 1764, 
Table E) 


4,000 
2,000 
500 


20, 000 
10, 000 
2,000 


Mineamies, northwest of lake Michigan 

Soos, about headwaters of the Mississippi, etc 

Grand total 




32, 000 







B— INDIANS IN THE REMAINING TERRITORY 



Wiondots, in neighborhood of Detroit and Sandusky 

Potowatomies, in neighborhood of St Josephs river, etc 

Miamies,in neighborhood of Miami river 

Shawanese, on the Wabash and other branches of the Ohio 

Delawares and Munsees, between Pittsburgh and Sandusky, on the 

Muskingum 

Chippewees (see estimate of these Indians in the rice district) 

Grand total 



180 
450 
300 
300 

600 
1,000 



1 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, pp. 560, 561, from manuscripts of James Monroe. This estimate 
leaves several important tribes out of each district. Only the column headed "Warriors" is given 
by Schoolcraft. The total population is figured at Bouquet's estimate. 



Table G- 



-IAeulenant Z. M. Pike s estimate of Indian population in the wild-rice dis 
irict in 1806 1 



Warriors 



Probable 

total 
population 



1. Chipeways of Sandy lake 

2. Chipeways of Leech lake 

3. Chipeways of Red lake 

4. Chipeways of St. Croix and Chipeway rivers 

5. Chipeways of other bands generally 

6. Winnebagoes 

7. Menomenes 

8. Sues, Minowa Kantong band (which, Pike says (Cones, Pike, r, 

p. 344), used wild rice very extensively) 

9. Sauks 

10. Foxes 



Grand total. 



45 
150 
150 
104 
1,600 
450 
300 

305 
700 
400 



345 
1,120 
1,020 

689 
8,000 
1,950 
1,350 

2,105 
2,850 
1,750 



221,179 



'Pike, Account of Expeditions. . . . Table F, to face p. 66, appendix, part 1. Both columns of 
figures are given by Pike. 

2 Dr Morse called attention to the following fact in his report to the Secretary of War in 1822, 
Appendix, p. 375: The proportion of warriors to the whole number of Indians in a tribe varies, or 
did vary at the time of their support by Indian natural productions. He found that where fish con- 
stituted a large part of the subsistence the proportion of men was less. This is but to say that in the 
presence of fish or nourishing subsistence the population increases more rapidly. Among tribes thus 
favorably situated women and children will be more numerous — a fact to which early chroniclers 
gave testimony in the wild-rice district of Wisconsin (women as well as children are relatively 
more numerous among well-nourished primitive peoples, for it was the female child which was 
oftenest sacrificed by infanticide in such districts as for the time had a scarcity of subsistence). 
Morse's figures, which follow, explain themselves: 



1110 WILD EICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Table H — Ratio of warriors to ivhole tribe, influenced by quality of sustenance. 





Warriors 


Whole 
number 


Ratio. 


Indians south of Red river 

Winnebagoes 

Menominies 

Indians in Ohio 

Indians in Missouri 

Indians west of Rocky mountains, 

Columbia river region (ate 

much fish) . 


13, 229 
900 
600 
753 
7,560 


46, 370 
5,800 
■ 3, 900 
2,257 

30,000 


1 warrior to Si whole population 
1 warrior to 6i whole population 
Do. 

1 warrior to 3 whole population 
1 warrior to 4 whole population 
1 warrior to 6 whole population 



Table I — Estimate of the Indian population in 1822 Y 

A — INDIANS IN THE WILD-RICE DISTRICT 



Chippewas, along south shore of Lake Superior to Mississippi river, 19 set- 
tlements (Colonel Dickson, long a resident among them, estimates their 

number at 10,000) 8, 335 

Chippewas and Ottawas, south side of Lake Superior, west side of Green bay, 

down toward Chicago 1, 600 

Menominees, Menominee and Fox rivers, Green bay, and Lake Winnebago . 3, 900 

Winnebagoes, Lake Winnebago, etc., to Mississippi river 5, 800 

Sioux of the Mississippi and St Peters rivers, Leaf tribe, on Mississippi, above 

Prairie du Chien, 600 population 300 

Red Wing's band, on Lake Pepin, 100 population 50 

Great Village of the Yonktons, both sides of Mississippi, above St Anthonys 
falls, 1,000 population 500 



Total 20,485 

li — INDIANS IN THE REMAINING TERRITORY 

Pottawattamie (Michigan), Huron river 166 

Wyandots (Michigan), Huron river 37 

Ottawas (Michigan), shore of Lake Michigan and rivers 2,873 

Chippewas (Michigan) , Saganau river and vicinity 5, 669 

Delewares, Munsees, Moheakunnunks, and Nanticokes (Indiana and Illinois) 

(they were numbered in 1816, but in 1822 were scattered) 1, 700 

Pottawattamies (Indiana and Illinois), southern end of Lake Michigan 3,400 

Chippewas (Indiana and Illinois), with the above Pottawattamies 500 

Menominees (Indiana and Illinois), on Illinois river 270 

Peorias, Kaskaskias, and Cahokias 36 

Kickapoos, central Illinois 400 

Kickapoos, Illinois, under treaty to move 1,800 

Miamies, Weas, and Eel river Indians, central Indiana 1.400 

Sauks, both sides of Mississippi river, between the Illinois and Wisconsin riv- 
ers, 4,500 -- 2,250 

Foxes, with the above Sauks, 2,000 1, 000 

Ioways (living with the last two, mostly west of Mississippi), 1,000 250 



1 Dr Morse's report to Secretary of War, 1S22, table 1. 



jenks] POPULATION COMPARED 1111 

B INDIANS IN THE REMAINING TERRITORY — Continued 

Wyandots, Ohio 542 

Shawnees, Ohio 2 800 

Senecas, Ohio 551 

Delewares, Ohio 80 

Mohawks, Ohio 57 

Ottawas, Ohio 377 

Total f 24,158 



In the above table (I) it will be noticed that of tho.se Indians located 
on the Mississippi river only one-half of each tribe is put in the list; 
thus it is granted that half of them may be on the west side of the 
stream, and so out of the district now considered; while of the Sioux 
(Dakota) the following bands are located in the rice fields of the St. 
Peters (Minnesota) river, though they are west of the Mississippi, and 
did the district considered include the western as well as eastern head- 
waters of this river, they would be included in the table: 



Little Raven's band, 15 miles below St Peters river 500 

Pineshow's band, 15 miles up St Peters river 150 

Band of the Six, 30 miles up St Peters river 300 

Others, at Little Rapids and St Peters 250 



Total 1,200 



It will also be noticed that no foreign Indians are located in the 
wild-rice district as yet, 1 while in the other territory a total of at 
least 1,988 Indians have been received from the East. They include 
the Munsee, Shawnee, Seneca, Delawares, and Mohawk. Also the 
Potawatomi, Ojibwa (Chippewa), and Menomini Indians to the num- 
ber of 4,170 have passed south from the wild-rice district into the 
other territory. Most, if not all, of the above movements are due to 
the influence of white men. Yet, notwithstanding this fact, the wild- 
rice district continued to sustain a much larger population per square 
mile than the other territory under consideration. 2 Besides the Indians 
in the wild-rice district, there were for many years hundreds, perhaps 
thousands, of white men engaged in various ways in the fur trade, 
who subsisted largely on Indian natural production. 

What, then, was the cause of this relatively very dense population % 
Mr Hebberd 3 says that the strip of territory above described, along 
Green bay and Fox river, was "like an oasis in a desert . . . The 
land was exceptionally rich in all essentials of barbaric plenty." 

iThe Oneida and Stoekbridge Indians came from New York to the wild-rice district near Green 
bay in 1821. Morse's report was printed in 1822, while some of his facts were collected as early as 1820. 

2 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. Ill, p. 584, published in 1853, gives estimates which show the rice 
district had over 22,000 Indian population, while the remaining territory had less than 21,000. In 1829 
(House Ex. Doc. 117, Twentieth Cong., second sess.) the population of the wild-rice district was 
estimated at 45,500, and of the remaining territory at 21,107. 

3 Hebberd, op. cit., pp. 35, 36. 



1112 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPEE LAKES [eth.axn.19 



Charlevoix 1 declared it was the "most charming country in all the 
world." "The lakes and livers were full of fish and the forests of 
game; fuel was plenty; the soil was easy to till and yielded richly. 
But the crowning attraction, doubtless, was the wild rice marshes, 
offering an abundant harvest without any labor save that of gathering 
it in the autumn. There indeed, was the Indian Utopia." Dablon 
called it "a terrestrial Paradise, but the way to it is as difficult as the 
way to heaven. 1 ' It was guarded on the east and north by the Great 
Lakes, on the west by the immense marshes of the Mississippi system. 
It was guarded internally by the many prosperous, powerful, con- 
tented Indian residents, and externally by the Iroquois on the east 
and the Dakota on the west, both of whom, because of their fierce 
and deadly enmity, the Ojibwa called "Adders/'' 

These Indians in the wild-rice district exhibited some social aspects 
which were quite unique. First, the Winnebago, of Siouan stock, 
had injected themselves among the Algonquian Indians, and, occup}*- 
ing a strip of land from the Mississippi due east to the foot of Green 
bay, they lived at peace with the Menomini, Kickapoo, Maskotin, 
Miami, Potawatomi, and other Indians of the Algonquian stock. 
Among the rice fields were villages in which even four different 
tribes dwelt in barbaric harmony. Early chroniclers frequently 
spoke of the superior physical manhood of the Indians in this dis- 
trict, as well as of their peaceful dispositions. On the one hand, these 
facts were probably due to the superior quality of their subsistence, 
as wild rice and fish, and on the other, to the abundance of such sub- 
sistence, and to the accompanying fact that many could dwell near 
together; and also to the fact that they must be more sedentaiy than 
the plains Indians, in order to reap their annual crop. The river influ- 
ence in general would also tend toward peaceful life. Rivers and 
lakes with their innumerable waterways (such as the wild-rice district 
exhibits probably more completely than any other section of equal size 
in America) furnished quick, permanent, and easy means of travel and 
transportation. Thus, even in canoeing, they would learn the value of 
mutual help. Canoes were less easily carried long distances by land 
than were the effects of the plains Indians. Constant connection with 
wild-rice and maple-sugar areas would lead to villages within easy 
access. At such village sites loj^alty to kinship in the tribe was planted, 
and out of it grew patriotism for country, as was noticeable when 
the Indians demanded lands where were situated their rice fields, their 
sugar orchards, and the graves of their fathers. Thus were laid two 
corner stones of civilization, viz, the peaceful massing of various 
tribes, and love for a common country. Here, however, the founda- 
tion ceased. Wild rice, which had led their advance thus far, held them 
back from further progress, unless, indeed, they left it behind them, for 

1 Charlevoix, letter 20. 



JENKS] 



CAUSES FOR CONSUMPTION 



1113 



with them it was incapable of extensive cultivation. Its supply was 
precarious, and there was no way of making it certain. One year the 
gathering of 3 or 4 per cent of the crop gave food for a winter's con- 
sumption, another year its failure, which might occur for any one of 
many reasons, threatened the people with starvation. In civilization 
one class of people at least must have comparative leisure in which to 
develop short-cut methods of doing old things, of acquiring the tradi 
tions of the race, and of mastering new thoughts and methods. Such 
leisure is impossible with a precarious food supply. But, in spite of 
these facts, for barbaric people during the period of barbarism, the 
most princely vegetal gift which North America gave her people 
without toil was wild rice. They could almost defy nature's law that 
he who will not work shall not eat. 

The facts presented in this section prove that the wild-rice district 
gave natural support to a larger number of Indians (besides many 
hundred whites) than did the adjoining territory of nearly five times 
its area. The facts further prove that wild rice was a chief means 
which made possible this greater population. 

The causes which led to the use of wild rice for food are lost to his- 
tory. Even tradition, with her many volumes written so full of inter- 
esting and valuable facts, gives no information on the subject, except 
that man's hunger caused him to eat the grain. The best evidence 
now known is that of the Relations des Jesuites. It has been noticed 
that Ojibwa Indians and early settlers used wild rice in Canada on 
Quinto bay and the north shore of Lake Ontario, on the north and 
west shores of Lake Erie", on the east shore of Lake Huron, and on 
Georgian bay, as well as on Rice and adjacent lakes in the included 
point of Canadian territory, now Ontario. The Jesuit fathers lived 
in Indian wigwams, subsisted on Indian foods, were interested and keen 
observers and intelligent chroniclers of the entire life of the Indian. 
Religious, social, and economic life received their careful attention. 
Yet not one word appears to have been written, either Ijv them or 
contemporaneous chroniclers, about the use of wild rice in this district. 1 
Its first mention is that of 1634 in connection with the Menomini 
Indians, who even then were called "wild-rice men" by their Algon- 
quin n kinsmen. It therefore seems probable that in the Ontario dis- 
trict described above the Indians did not use wild rice until scarcity 
of game, caused by the fur trade with the whites, drove them to it. 
The Menomini Indians, however, did depend upon it extensively before 
such scarcity. What influence the scarcity of game had upon the use 
of wild rice by the other Indians in the wild-rice district it is impossi- 
ble to say. However, the Winnebago and several thousand Dakota 

1 Miss Emma Helen Blair, assistant editor of the Thwaites' edition of The Jesuit Relations and Allied 
Documents (Cleveland, 1896 + ,73 volumes) , is the authority for the above statement, made before the 
volumes were accessible. 



1114 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Indians of the Siouan stock, and the Miami, Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, 
Maskotin, and Kickapoo Indians of the Algonquian stock used rice to a 
certain extent while still surrounded hy small game and even by buf- 
falo, The powerful and numerous Ojibwa Indians came into posses- 
sion of wild rice during the first period of the fur trade; consequently 
theirs also was not a choice between starvation or the use of rice. 
This fact is attested by the Annual Report of the Commissioner of 
Indian Affairs for 1861, in which year 110,000 worth of furs were 
gathered. But inasmuch as the rice fields where rice is harvested are 
annually failing, but where it is not harvested rice still grows luxuri- 
antly, it is probable that in most of the wild-rice district the grain has 
been gathered only a few hundred years, say from three to five, in 
such quantities as are shown by the tables on page 1075 and following. 1 

1 The following is from White Earth agency, Minnesota, in 1894: "A good many on the different 
reservations have, in their proper seasons, gathered wild rice, blueberries, cranberries, and snake- 
root, and made considerable quantities of maple sugar; but these are now mere incidents to their 
suppi rt. The lakes in which the wild rice once grew in such abundant quantities have become 
almost barren" (House Ex. Doc, 3d sess., 53d Cong., 1894-95, vol. xv, p. 150) . 



Chapter VII 

INFLUENCE OF WILD RICE ON GEOGRAPHIC NOMEN- 
CLATURE 1 

Introduction 

One of the simplest and most natural reasons for calling a particular 
locality by a definite name is that that locality is characterized by some 
one product. This is the way that a great deal of America was named 
by her primitive people. There is ' ' Trout lake," ' ' Elm lake," " Sugar 
Camp lake," "Rat lake," "Beaver lake," "Rice lake," "Wolf river," 
"Big Rice river," "Little Rice river," etc. Such names become fixed 
by continuous use, and often persist long after the object for which 
they were given has perished. 

The purpose of this chapter is to throw further light upon the ex- 
tensive habitat of wild rice, and the importance of the grain to the 
Indian. It is desirable to call attention to the fact that some of 
the places which now bear the name of "Rice" were not so named by 
the Indian. It will be noticed that the Siouan name for wild rice is 
found only west of the Mississippi river, except as it is applied to a few 
small streams immediately tributary to this river from the east, while 
the Algonquian names dominate the territory east of the river. The 
explanation of this is the fact that the Dakota Indians were nearly all 
driven from the territory east of the river before the white man 
learned their local geographic names. After that time the Indian 
languages throughout the wild-rice district east of the Mississippi river 
were Algonquian, with the single exception of that of the Winnebago, 
who speak the Siouan language. 

The dominance of the French in this district during the period of 
the fur trade explains the prevalence of French geographic names. 
The making of English names is going on to-day as in the past. 
Names referring to wild rice are given because of the prevalence of 
the grain, or are a translation of an Indian or French term. 

1 This chapter can be, at best, only a catalogue, and not even an alphabetic one. For purposes of 
historic and scientific study, if for no other, Indian geographic names ought to be maintained. 
If the translation of the Indian name is ugly, or not euphonious, the original is often very musical in 
sound. No one would think of exchanging the Anglicized "Chicago" for its Indian equivalent 
"Place of the skunk." Certainly no argument need be made for the beauty of the Anglicized 
Indian names Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Mississippi. There is generally better reason for 
maintaining Indian geographic names than there is for replacing them by some fortuitous name. Yet 
unscientific and senseless as are some names, one acknowledges amusement when he learns that a 

map is made designating a lake "Uncle Lake," in honor of an old gentleman who is a frequent 

visitor or hanger-around in a State land office. 

1115 



1116 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Sections of Country 1 

No other plant which was used for food by the North American 
Indian during the period of Indian natural production has stamped its 
name upon so extensive a section of territory as has the wild-rice plant. 
About the year 1820 Dr Morse found that " the rice country extended 
north to the Lake of the Woods, thence along the northern borders of 
the United States to Lake Superior; and south to the Ouisconsin [Wis- 
consin] and Fox rivers, and from the last river northerly along the west 
side of Lake Michigan." 2 One reads that in 1860 this territory to the 
south of Lake Superior was called by the Canadians le pays de la 
folle avoine. The French Canadians often spoke of these southern 
lands as les terres folles or la folle avoine as "Je veux hiverner a la 
folle avoine? 3 

At about the date of Dr Morse's Report Schoolcraft said that the 
Folle Avoine country included Lac du Flambeau, Ottowa lake, Yellow 
river, "Nama Kowagun" of St. Croix river, and Snake river. 4 He 
presented at that time a map which has drawn upon it a "Great trail 
to the Folle Avoine country? leading southwest from near present 
Houghton, on Lake Superior, Wisconsin, into the above "Folle Avoine 
country." As early as 1792 the great Northwest Fur Company desig- 
nated one of its four departments, the country drained by the St Croix 
river, the Folle Avoine departments 

Manomah Isle (Chambers island) in Green bay is given on Farmer's 
Fourth Sheet or Map of Wisconsin, Iowa, etc, John Farmer (Detroit, 
1848). 

Manomin county was created in Minnesota in 1859 by Mr Fridley. 
In 1870 it was changed to Fridley township of Anoka county." 

The Upper Peninsula of Michigan has a Menominee county, the sec- 
tion of country which is separated from Wisconsin by the Menominee 
river. 

There is a Menominee township in Waukesha county, Wisconsin, 
and a Manomin township in Anoka county, Minnesota, while Freeborn 
county, Minnesota, has a Riceland toumship. 

Rice county, Minnesota, is so named out of respect for the Honor- 
able H. M. Rice. 

Great Rice M[arsh] is located on the south side of St Pierre 
(Minnesota) river near its junction with the Mississippi river on a 
map by Carver in 1766 or immediately after. 7 In 1796 this same 
section of territory was called Rice Swamp, and along the north side 
of the river farther to the west were Rice Marshes * 

1 Names referring to wild rice are in italics. In these names the original form is literally followed. 

2 Morse, Report, appendix, p. 30. 3 Kohl, Kitchi-Gami,pp. 117, lis. V 

4 Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, appendix, p. 576. 

BWarren, History of the Ojibways, chapter xxxiv. 

6 Coues, Pike, vol. in, , p. 887, under " Fridley." 7 Map with Carver's Travels . . . 1766-1768. 
8 Map, London, A. Arrow-smith, January 1,1796: additions, 1802. , 



JENKS] 



WILD-EICE CITIES 



1117 



Cities, Stations, etc 

Indian villages are very often situated at such places as are best also 
for the villages of early settlers, as the head of tidal waters and the 
falls of rivers, where there is a natural stopping place, because there 
boats must be unloaded and portaged, and there also fish for food are 
usually plentiful. Besides these reasons, which appeal to both the 
Indian and the white man, the latter finds there necessary water power. 
Fertile grassy valleys and elevated table-lands bring to both the Indian 
and white man valuable advantages for a settlement. The Indian seeks 
to locate his village in a place of saf ety near his food supply. The sites 
of a vast number of our present American cities were previously covered 
with the village dwellings of the Indian, and a number of these places 
still bear their earlier Indian names. Many such villages were named 
from the presence of wild rice. 

North Dakota claims a Wild Rice station and a Riceville station, 
both in Cass county. 

In Michigan, Menominee county has a Menominee station and also a 
Menominee River station, while Calhoun county has a Rice Creek station 
and a Rice Lake station. 

In Ontario, Canada, there is a Menomonee station on Parry sound. 

Jo Daviess county, Illinois, has a Menominee station on Big Menom- 
inee creek. 

In the preceding chapter it was noticed that the Indians about the 
St Croix and Chippewa rivers received their name from the abun- 
dance of wild rice in their vicinity, and Carver presented a map in 
1766-68 which located R Ice Village of the Ojibwa Indians along the 
east shore of the St Croix river. 

According to a map made at the opening of the nineteenth century 1 
there was a Menomonie's castle on Fox river, near its mouth, at Green 
bay, and a Menomonie town on the west side of the bay. 

Schoolcraft, about the year 1820, 2 mentions two "Indian Spring 
villages," Great Rice Place and Little Rice Place, on the Namakgum 
[Nemacagon] river, a southern tributary of the St Croix. These 
villages were probably in Washburn county, Wisconsin. 

In 1836 a map 3 presents five Mennomonie villages on the west shore 
of Green bay, besides one Mennomonie village on Big Mennomonie 
river [Menominee river], and another Menonnomonie village on Fox 
river, a short way from its mouth, another at the head of Lake Win- 
nebago, and still another farther to the east. Probably one of the 
above villages is presented in 1837 as Menominieville on Fox river.* 

1 Map, A. Arrowsmith, London, 1796; additions, 1802. 

2 Schoolcraft, Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes . . . p. 369. 

3 The Tourist's Pocket Map of Michigan . . . by Mitchell, 1836. 
4 Topographical Map of Wisconsin Territory ... by Lyttle, 1837. 

19 eth, pt 2—01 36 



1118 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



The following year. 1838. Mitchell gives 1 this last village as 

Mennomonieville. 

There are in Wisconsin numerous cities and stations which bear their 
name because of the presence of wild rice in their vicinity, as follows: 
Mmomonee, in Menomonee township, Waukesha county. 
Menornonee Falls, in Menomonee township, Waukesha county. 
Menomonie, in Dunn county. 

Menornonie Junction, in Dunn county, although this may be the 
Menomoniede, in Dunn county, as given on a map in 1896. 2 
North Menornonie, in Dunn county. 

Rice Lake, on Rice lake, in Stanford township. Barron county. 
South Rice Lake, on Rice lake, in Stanford township, Barron 
county. 

Rice Lake, in Langlade county. 
Riceville, in Washington county. 
Wenamon.ee, on Red Cedar river in Dunn county. 3 
Minnesota also has a small number of rice cities, stations, etc, as 
follows: 

Manomin, in Manomin township, Anoka county (Illustrated Histor- 
ical Atlas of the State of Minnesota. 1874, Chicago). 

Rice Lake, in Dodge county near Rice lake in Clearmont township. 
Steele county (ibid.). 

Rice, in Zumbrota township, Goodhue county (Goodhue County 
Plat Book. 1894). 

Riceford, on Riceford creek, in Spring Grove township, Houston 
county (Houston County Plat Book. 1878). 

Manotnin, at the mouth of Rice river in Ramsey county (Blanch- 
ard's Map of the North Western States, Chicago, 1866). 

Rice T\own\ at Sandy lake, probably in present Aitkin county 
(Map of the United States, etc, John Melish, 1816). 

Manannah, on Crow river, in Meeker county (Sectional Map of the 
Surveyed Portion of Minnesota and the North Western Part of Wis- 
consin. 1S60). 

Rice City, south of the preceding in Meeker county (ibid). 

Rivers, Creeks, Lakes, and Ponds 

Rivers, creeks, lakes, and ponds in the territory under considera- 
tion which bear the name Rice, or some of its various synonyms, 
present unmistakable evidence that at some time such waters grew 
wild rice (it is, of course, recognized that such a name could have 
been given in honor of some person, but an effort has been made to 
exclude all such from the list). The names which follow, therefore, 
tell their own tale: 



1 Map of the Settled Part of Wisconsin. Iowa, etc. 

2 The Railroad Map of Wisconsin . . . by D.J. McKenzie. Railroad Commissioner (1S96). 

3 Lloyd's New Map of the United States, the Canadas, etc. (1862). 



JENKS] 



WILD-RICE RIVERS 



1119 



In Ontario, Canada, Trent river, which leads from Rice lake into 
Quinto bay, is called Rice R\_iver\ in 1817. 1 All other maps examined, 
both prior to and following the one named, call the stream Trent 
river. 

Menominee river, discharging into Green bay and forming the bound- 
an^ between the upper peninsula of Michigan and Wisconsin, has had 
numerous names. Hoffman 2 spells the word Menomini. On the 
same page he also says that the word is from the Indian Mi'nika! 
nise'pe. Verwyst s&ys that the word is a corruption of manominig, or 
oumanominig, meaning "wild-rice people." 3 The following various 
synonyms have been given to this stream: 

Menomonee. Blanchard's Map of the North Western States, Chi- 
cago, 1866. 

Mun-nom-o-nee. Map of Wiskonsan, Charles Doty and Francis 
Hudson, 1848. 

Munnomonee. Map of Wiskonsin Territoiy compiled from Public 
Surveys by Captain Cram, 1839. 

Mennomonie. Map of the Settled Part of Wisconsin and Iowa, 
etc., by Augustus Mitchell, 1838. 

Big Mennomonie. The Tourist's Pocket Map of Michigan, by J. H. 
Young, published by S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1836. 
Little Mennomonie river is shown a short distance up the bay; it is 
probably the present Fort river. 

Menomine. Dr Morse's Report, appendix^ p. 47. 

Monomonie. Map of the United States, by Abraham Bradley, jr., 
1804. 

Honomonies. Map, States of America, by J. Russell, 1799. 

R. des Oumalouminec ou de lafolle auvine. ' Map with Relations des 
Jesuites, 1670-71. 

R. des Oumalouminecs. Map, Canada, Louisiane et Terres Angloises, 
1755, Le S r D'Anville. 

Malomine. A Map of the British Plantations on the Continent of 
North America, by Henry Overton [circa 1750]. 

Outmalouminec R. Map, North America, D'Anville, 1752, patron- 
age of Louis, Duke of Orleans. 

R. des Oumaloumme ou de la Folle Farine. Map, Le Canada, ou 
Nouvelle-France, Paris, 1718. 

R. des Oumalouminec. Map, Amerique Septentrionale, D'Anville 
[1746]. 

The present Red Cedar river, discharging into the Chippeway river, 
and also the Chippewa}^ river, which in turn empties into the Missis- 
sippi at the southern end of Lake Pepin, have at various times borne 
names synonymous with wild rice. About the year 1850 Warren 



1 Map, " United States of America. No. 55" [1817]. 2 Hoffman, The Menomini Indians, p.39. 
3 Verwyst, Geographical Names in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan having a Chippewa 
Origin, in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. xn, p. 393. 



I 



1120 WILD EICE GATHEEEBS OF UPPEE LAKES [eth.ann.19 



called the Red Cedar the Me-nom-in-ee 1 and at about the same time 
Schoolcraft named that part of Red Cedar river above Rice lake, in 
Barron county, the Folle Avoine. 2 In 1831 it seems that the entire 
stream was called Folle Avoine. In 1818 the river is given as Menom- 
onie, and flows through Manorninikan Lake. 2, This is undoubtedly 
the Rice lake in Barron count}^, Wisconsin. About 1850 Warren 
speaks of Prairie Rice Lake, or Mush-ko-da-mun-o-min-e-kin, or Lac 
la Folle [Prairie lake] as connected with Pellican lake, which dis- 
charges into the Red Cedar river.* This Prairie lake receives the 
waters of Rice Creek? 

In the year 1836 Pellican Rice Lake was given on Red Cedar river. 6 
This last is probably Lake Chetak, in Barron county. 

In 1795 "Chippeway" river is given on a map. 7 Previous to that 
time it had very generally been called Malaminican, as in 1755, 1750, 
and 1716. 8 

The Menomonee river, discharging into Lake Michigan at Milwau- 
kee, Wisconsin, was the Munomonee river on a map in 1811. 9 It was 
Menominie river on a map five years previous, 10 and Mennomonee on 
Mitchell's map of 1838; 11 while in 1835 it was given as the Menominee. 12 

The river has a tributary which is now called Menomonee creek, 
which, for most of its course, flows in Ozaukee county. 

The Fox river in Wisconsin, which discharges into the southern end 
of Green bay, had a Lac des Folles Avoines, according to a French 
map of 1688. 13 It is the only lake then represented along the course of 
the Fox river. Another veiy old French map 14 has three lakes called 
Lac des Folles Avoines on the present Fox river. An expansion of 
the Fox river 1 mile wide, near its discharge into Lake Winnebago, was 
called Lake Menominey in 1835. 15 The author probably referred to an 
arm of the present Big Buttes Des Morts lake. This arm in 1836 
was called Monomonie Lake. 16 The same year it was also referred to as 

1 Warren, History of the Ojibways, p. 309. 

2 Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, appendix, p. 543. 

3 Farmer's 4-sheet, or Map of Wisconsin, etc., by John Farmer (Detroit, 1848). 

4 Warren, op. fit., p. 308. 

5 Map, The Lake Region of Northern Wisconsin and Michigan, by Ring, Fowle & Co. (Milwau- 
kee, 1893). 

6 Schoolcraft, Tnirty Years. 

i A Map of the Western Part of the Territories belonging to the United States [1795] . 
8 A Map of the British and French Dominions in North America, by John Mitchell, 1755; A Map of 
the British Plantations, by Henry Overton, 1750: Amerique Septentrional, by D'Anville [1746]. 
9 Map of Wiskonsan, by Charles Doty and Francis Hudson, 1S44. 
io Map of Wiskonsin Territory, by T. J. Cram, 1839. 
» Map by Mitchell, 1838. 

12 A Map of a Portion of the Indian Country lying East and West of Mississippi, for the Topograph- 
ical Bureau, 1835. 

13 Copy by I. A. Lapham from a map in the Chicago Historical Collection, destroyed by fire in 1871, 
entitled "Une partie de la Carte oe L' Amerique Septentrionale en L'Annee 1688, par J. Baptiste 
Louis Franquentin HYD DU ROY, a Quebec en Canada." 

"See map in Winsor, Mississippi Basin, p. 23, reproduced by Marcel from a map in the Marine at 
Paris. 

. 15 Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage, vol. I, p. 174. 
i° Map of the Territories of Michigan and Ouisconsin, by John Farmer, 1836. 



JENKS] 



WILD-RICE RIVERS 



1121 



Mennomomi. 1 In 1850 a Menomin Lake was shown on Fox river imme- 
diately below the present Moundsville, at the. upper end of Buffalo 
lake. 2 

Menominie rimer, probably the present Wolf river in eastern Wis- 
consin, was shown on a map in 1836. 3 

The present Little Eau Plaine river, a tributary of the Wolf river 
between Marathon and Portage counties, Wisconsin, was once known 
as Ma-no-min a-kung-a-kauy Se-he or Rice Stalks river. i It also flows 
through a Rice Lake. 

Between 47° and 48° north latitude a river flows from the east into 
the Red river of the North which has been noted for more than one 
hundred years for its production of wild rice. On recent maps it is 
known as Wild Rice River. This river also has a large tributary 
called South Branch Wild Rice River, which in 1836 was said to drain 
Lake la Folle Avoine between Ottertail lake and the sources of the 
Crowing (Crow Wing) river. 5 In 1885 Bell wrote 6 that at one time 
the Wild Rice river was known as the Menomone, and also as the Pse 
river. In the years 1861, 1848, and 1813 the river was called Manomin 
or Wild Rice River. 1 On map of 1857 this stream was called Mamonia 
River.* In 1836 it was known as let Folle Avoine. 9 In 1822 Dr Morse 
called it Wild Oats Cr., 10 while Beltrami in 1828 wrote it Wild Oats 
river. 11 According to a map of 1816, Wild Oats Cr\eelc\ and Rice Straw 
Or[eek] both discharge into Red river of the North from the east, 
between 47° and 48° north latitude. It is quite probable that these 
refer to the Wild Rice River and South Branch Wild Rice River, as 
these two streams join not far from where their waters enter the Red 
river of the North. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the 
stream was called Rice Straw river, and immediately north of it is 
a Wild Rice river which flows into Red Lake river, which, in turn, 
empties into the Red river of the North. 12 This Wild Rice river last 
spoken of is probably the Clear Water river rising in Mitcha or Big 
Boulder lake on Mitchell's map. 

Another historic wild rice producing river flows into the Red river 
of the North. This second one discharges near Fargo, North Dakota, 

1 The Tourists Pocket Map of Michigan, Mitchell (Philadelphia, 1836). 

2 Map, The State of Wisconsin, Lapham (Milwaukee, 1850). 

3 Farmer, Map of the Territories of Michigan and Wisconsin, 1836. 

4 Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. I, p. 120. 

5 Map of the Territory of Wisconsin, by Burr, 1836. 

e Chas. N. Bell, Historical Names and Places, in Trans., Manitoba Hist, and Sci. Soc.vol. xvn, 
1884-85, p. 5 (Winnipeg, 1885). 

7 Map of the United States of North America, supplement to Illustrated London News (June 1, 
1861); map, United States of North America, by Sherman & Smith (New York, 1848); map, Hydro- 
graphical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River, Nicollet, 1843. 

8 A New and Complete Railroad Map of the United States, Wm. Perris (New York [1857]). 

9 Map of the Territory of Wisconsin, by Burr, 1836. 

10 Map with Morse's Report. 

11 Beltrami, Pilgrimage, vol. ir. See map of Mississippi river. 

12 The second section of the map entitled "London, A. Arrowsmith, January 1, 1796. Additions 
1802." 



1122 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ans.19 



and flows from the southwest. Unlike the river just considered, this 
one bears the Siouan name. In 1861 it is found as Wild Rice river. 1 
In 1850 it was called Psau or Wild Rice, 2 while in 1848 and 1843 it 
was given as Psihu or Wild Rice river. 3 A map of 1838 gives the 
stream as Pse river. 4 

During the year 1836 two synonyms are found, the word being 
written both Pse 5 and Ipse.* Beltrami named this stream, as well as 
the one on the east side of the Red river of the North, the Wild Oats 
river, 7 the one from the west being called Sau- Watpa. Watpa' is the 
Dakota word for river. 8 Keating said that in 1823 the traders called 
both of these tributaries of the Red river of the North Wild-rice, or 
Folle Avoine. 9 Tanner calls the one which discharges from the west 
the " Gaunenoway," and Coues sa3^s that "Gaunenoway stands for 
Manominee. 10 

Besides the Red Cedar river, which discharges into the Chippeway 
and through it into the Mississippi, and both of which have borne 
names synonymous with wild rice, other waters will be mentioned 
which feed the upper Mississippi, all of which bear the wild rice 
cognomen. 

In 1892 there was a Manomin river flowing into the Mississippi 
from the east. It drains both Rice Lake in Aitkin county, Minnesota, 
and a Manomin lake near at hand, while immediately north of it is 
another Rice lake draining into Sandy lake at Aitkin county. 11 Wild 
Oats river is the name given this stream in 1819. 13 About fifteen 
years previous Lewis and Clarke called it Wild Oats R[iver\. 13 It enters 
the Mississippi river from the east between degrees 46 and 47 north 
latitude. This is probably the Manomin river of the map '"Hydro- 
graphical Basis . . . " made in 1843. Beltrami wrote that he named 
two lakes, some 5 or 6 miles in circumference, near the source of the 
Mississippi, Manomeny-Kany-aguen, because, as he explained it. they 
were full of wild rice. 14 Psin-ta-wak-pa-dan or Little Rice River 
is now called Rice Creek, and empties into the Mississippi from the 
east a few miles north of Minneapolis. 15 Piniditvin ox Manomin or 

1 Map of the United States of North America, supplement to Illustrated London News (June 1, 1861). 

2 General-Karte Der Vereinigten Staaten von Nord-Amerika, by Albrecht Piatt, 1850 (after T. 
Calvin Smith's New York Karten). 

3 United States of America, by Sherman and Smith (New York. 1848) ; map, Hydrographical Basin 
of the Upper Mississippi River, after Nicollet (1843). 

4 Map of the Settled Part of Wisconsin. Mitchell, 1838. 

5 Map of the Territories of Michigan, by Farmer, 1836. 

6 Map of the Territory of Wisconsin, by Burr, 1836. 

7 Beltrami, op. cit. 

s Ibid., vol. II. 337. 

'■< Keating, Narrative, vol. II, 37, 

10 Coues, New Light, vol. i, note, p. 147. 

« Plat Book of Morrison county (1892). 

)2 Warden, United States of North America, vol. I, p. 117 (Edinburgh, 1819). 
13 Map in Lewis and Clarke, Travels. 
H Beltrami, op. cit., vol. II, p. 408. 
15 Gordon, op. cit., p. 58. 



JEN'KS] 



WILD-KICE RIVERS 



1123 



Rice Lake discharges its waters into the Mississippi by a short thor- 
oughfare in section 24, township 146 north, range 35 west in Min- 
nesota. 1 

In 1879 Aitkin county, Minnesota, had three Rice lakes northeast 
of Mille Lacs. In one place the northernmost one is called Manoman, 
while again the westernmost one is Manomin." 1 

Coues speaks 3 of the Pinnidiwin or Carnag or De Sota river. It is 
the west branch of the source of the Mississippi, and flows through 
Lake La Folle, Rice, or Manomin. Rand and McNally now call this 
waterwajr Lake Monomina. Schoolcraft speaks of the lake as Lac 
la Folle, and Monomina from Monominakauning (place of wild rice).* 

The Mississippi also drains Manomin, L[ake] between Wakomite 
creek and "Cow Horn," north of Itasca lake. 5 There was also a Rice 
river flowing into the Mississippi from the east, a short distance above 
St. Paul, in 1856. 6 It is called Rice creek in 1874, while Coues later 
calls it Rice or Manomin crleek]. 1 

Neill mentioned Otonwewakpadan or Rice creek in Minnesota as one 
of the two places where, traditionally, the Dakota first planted maize. 8 
The same writer in translating the French author of the Memoir of 
the Sioux spoke of Wildrice Lake 15 leagues below Riviere an Serp- 
ent (Snake river), Minnesota. It may be the present Rice Lake in 
northeastern Anoka county. Dr Morse mentions Pauc-quau-me-no- 
min-ic-con or Rice Lake as being 20 or 25 miles south of Sandy lake, 
Aitkin county, Minnesota. 9 

Coues says that a feeder of Sand}^ lake near Leech lake, Minnesota, 
which flows in at the southernmost end is called "Sandy, Sandy Lake, 
or Rice Lake R\iver\ ". This river has a branch from Manomin or 
Rice Lake, and either the branch or the entire river is the Menomeny- 
sibi or Wild Oats river of Beltrami, according to Coues. 10 Rice Lake 
in Little Falls township, Morrison county, Minnesota, is fed b} T Rice 
creek and discharges into the Mississippi by way of the Platte river. 11 

In the year 1856 a Rice Lake was drained by Le Suer [Le Sueur] 
river into Minnesota river from the south. 12 Seven 3 r ears prior to this 
the lake is called Psah L[ake] and is drained by Psah Reiver} into 
Le Sueur river and then into the Minnesota. The same map 13 presents 

I Coues, Botanical Gazette, December, 1894, p. 506. 

-Map, Department of the Interior, General Land Office, state of Minnesota, 1879. 

3 Coues, Pike, vol. i, p. 163, note. 

4 Schoolcraft, Summary Narrative, pp. 248, 249. 

"Minnesota Historical Collections, vol. vm, part 2 (1896), p. 236, pi. iv. 

°Map of southern Minnesota and part of Wisconsin, by Harris, Cowles & Co. (Boston, 1856). 
"Coues, Pike, note 6, p. 94. 

8 Neill, Indian Trade, in Minnesota Historical Society's Collections, vol. i, p. 32. 

9 Morse, Report, appendix, p. 35. 

10 Coues, Pike, note 49, p. 137. 

II Morrison County Plat Book, 1892. 

12 Map of southern Minnesota by Harris, Cowles & Co., Boston, 1856. 

13 Map of the Territory of Minnesota, exhibiting route of the expedition to the Red river of the 
north, 1849, by John Pope. 



1124 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [bth.anit.19 



a Psah L\ake\ just north of the Minnesota river where Rice marshes 
were located on earlier maps. Coues explains that Rice Rimer near 
Brainer county, Minnesota, is the Nagajika creek of Nicollet. 1 Big 
Rice River and a Little Rice River, in Oneida county. Wisconsin, 
discharge their waters into the Wisconsin river. 

Jo Daviess county. Illinois, has a Big Menominee creek, which is a 
tributary of the Mississippi river at "Nine-mile island" or •"Number 
232," and this creek is also fed by a smaller one called Little Menominee 
creek. 

A Rice creek discharges into Kalamazoo river at Marshall, Michigan. 

It is believed that the following bodies of water, mostly lakes, receive 
their names from wild rice. Their location is given as accurately as is 
possible, but no claim is made for the identification and exact location 
of all the places previously named in this chapter, in consequence of 
which some of them may be unavoidably repeated in the present list: 

Poygan Lake, Winnebago county, Wisconsin, from the Menomini 
word powahecdnne, or ""threshing [wild-rice]." 

Rice Lake, Ontario, Canada, between lake Simcoe and Quinto bay. 

Rice Lake, Newago county, Michigan, Grant township. 

Rice Lake, the head of Shell river, a tributary of the St Croix, is 
given by Warren, History of the Ojibways, p. 161. 

Rice Lake, Forest county, Wisconsin, township 35, range 12, near 
Crandon. 

Rice Lake, Forest county, Wisconsin, township 35, range 11, near 
Crandon. 

Rice Lake, Oneida county, Wisconsin, township 36, range 7 east 
(Pocketbook Map of Oneida, Vilas, and range 4 of Iron counties, Wis- 
consin, E. S. Shepard, Rhinelander, Wisconsin, [circa 1898]). 

Big Rice Lake, Oneida county, Wisconsin, township 36, range 6 
east (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Vilas county, Wisconsin, township 41, range S east (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Vilas county, Wisconsin, township 39, range 10 east (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Vilas county, Wisconsin, township 12, range 7 east (ibid.). 

Scattering Rice Lake, on line between Forest and Vilas counties. It 
is drained by the Wisconsin river (ibid.). 

Little Rice Lake, Vilas county, Wisconsin, between the triangle of 
lakes, Boulder lake, Fish Trap lake, and Trout lake. Rice creek is 
connected with Big lake, which lies immediately west of Little Rice 
lake (Map of the Famous Hunting and Fishing Grounds embraced in 
the Lake Region of Michigan, Poole Bros., Chicago, 1895). 

Rice Lake, Polk county, Wisconsin, Alden township (Polk County 
Plat Book, 1888): 

Rice Lake, Polk county, Wisconsin, Milltown township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Polk county, Wisconsin, West Sweden township (ibid.). 

i Coues, Pike, note 41, p. 131. 



\ 



JENKS] 



WILD-RICE LAKES 



1125 



Rice Lake, Dane county, Wisconsin, Albion township (Dane County 
Atlas, 1873). 

Rice Lake, Barron county, Wisconsin, Stanford township (Bai'ron 
County Plat Book). 

Opukwa, or Rice Rakes (Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. I, p. 75). 

Rice Lake, Ottertail county, Minnesota, Rush Lake township (Otter- 
tail County Plat-Book, 1884). 

Rice Lake, Ottertail county, Minnesota, Hobart township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Ottertail county, Minnesota, Friberg township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake in the city limits of Minneapolis (An Illustrated His- 
torical Atlas of the State of Minnesota, Chicago, 187-1). 

Rice Creek, Washington county, Minnesota, Oneka township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Scott county, Minnesota, Spring Lake township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Carver county, Minnesota, Chandhassen township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Carver county, Minnesota, between Waconia and Benton 
townships (ibid.). 

Rice Creek, Blue Earth county, Minnesota, Sterling township, dis- 
charges into v Maple river (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Blue Earth county, Minnesota, McPherson township 
(ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Le Sueur county, Minnesota, Sharon township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Rice county, Minnesota, Shieldsville township (ibid.). 
This lake may be named after the Honorable H. M. Rice, as is the 
county. 

Rice Lake, Steele county, Minnesota, Havana township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Waseca county, Minnesota, Janesville township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Waseca county, Minnesota, on the border between 
Blooming, Grove, and Woodville townships (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Freeborn county, Minnesota, Riceland township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Faribault county, Minnesota, Dalevan township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Faribault county, Minnesota, Foster township (ibid.). 

Rice Lakes, Stearns county, Minnesota. These are several large 
lakes in Eden, Lake, and adjoining townships (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Mille Lacs county, Minnesota, Greenbush township 
(ibid.). 

Rice Creek, Anoka county, Minnesota. It flows into the Mississippi 
river from the east (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Anoka county, Minnesota, between Bethel and Linwood 
townships (ibid.). 

Rice Creek, Kanabec county, Minnesota. It discharges into the 
Snake river in the southeastern part of the county (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Isanti county, Minnesota, Maple Ridge township, from 
which flows the Rice Creek just cited (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Todd county, Minnesota, Hartford township (ibid.). 

Rice Lake, Morrison county, Minnesota (ibid.). 



1126 WILD EICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Bice Lake, Wright county, Minnesota, Franklin township (ibid.). 
Big Bice Lake, Cass county, Minnesota (ibid.). 

Bice Lake, Hennepin county, Minnesota, Eden Prairie township 
(ibid.). 

Wild Bice Lake, St. Louis county, Minnesota, northeast of Duluth 
(ibid.). 

Bice Lake, St. Louis county, Minnesota (ibid.). 

Bice L. , a pond more than 1 mile long, at the north end of Little 
Lake Winnibigoshish (Coues, Pike, vol. i, note, p. 325). 

Bice Lake, or Lake Ann, an expansion of Brown creek [Minnehaha] 
(ibid. , note 4, p. 90). 

Bice L. , near Pokegama, Minnesota (ibid., note 54, p. 147). 

This chapter presents over one hundred and sixty places which hare 
borne a name synonymous with wild rice. Of these some few are 
doubtless duplicates, though great care has been exercised to avoid 
such. 1 

When it is called to mind how the North American Indians and 
those following them were led to name a certain place by its charac- 
teristic product, a better perspective is obtained for viewing the 
importance of wild rice as a food-supply during the period of aborig- 
inal production. 

After a cursory comparative study it is believed that more geo- 
graphic names have been derived from wild rice in this relatively 
small section of North America than from any other natural vegetal 
product throughout the entire continent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Allen, J. A. The American bisons, living and extinct. Published as Memoirs of 
the geol. surv. of Kentucky, vol. r, part 2. [Excellent map. ] Univ. Press, Cam- 
bridge, 1876. 

See also U. S. Geog. and Geo]. Surv. of the Territories (Hayden), 9th annual report, 1S75. 

Armstrong, Perry A. The Sauks and the Black Hawk war, with biographical 
sketches, etc. Springfield, 111., 1887. 

Atwater, Caleb. Indians of the northwest, their manners, customs, etc., or remarks 
made on a tour to Prairie du Chien (and thence to Washington city in 1829. 
Colmnbus, 1850. 

Austin, Amory. Rice; its cultivation, production, and distribution in the United 
States and foreign countries. With a chapter on the rice soils of S. Carolina, by 
Milton Whitney. Washington, 1893. 

In U. S. Dept. of Agric, Div. of Stat., Misc. Ser., 6. 

1 The material for this chapter has been collected from books, maps, and atlases. It is often impos- 
sible to locate the places mentioned in the first class of sources. Old maps are not detailed or 
authentic enough for strict accuracy. The counties of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota have not 
been surveyed so that accurate county atlases may be made, while in all of the States which grow 
wild rice few atlases have been made. Inasmuch as it is the smaller lakes and ponds which bear 
wild rice most abundantly, there are many bodies of water locally bearing a name for wild rice 
which the present maps do not show. 



jenks] BIBLIOGRAPHY 1127 

Baeaga, Frederic. 1 Dictionary of the Otchipwe language, etc. Cincinnati, 1853. 

[This is the language of the Ojibwa and Potawatomi tribes, and of the Algonquian Indians in 
general.] 

Baeeatt, Joseph. (See Tenesles.) 

Bell, Charles N. Some historical names and places of the Canadian northwest. No. 
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In Trans. Manitoba Hist, and Sci. Society. 

Belteami, J. C. A pilgrimage in Europe and America, leading to the discovery of 
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Bessey, Charles E. , and Herbert J. Webber. Grasses and forage plants . . . Lin- 
coln, 1890. 

Biddle, James W. Recollections of Green bay [Wisconsin] in 1816-17. Wis. Hist. 
Colls., vol. i, pp. 49-63. 

Blackbied, Andrew J. (Mack-e-te-be-nessy). History of the Ottawa and Chippewa 
Indians of Michigan, etc. Ypsilanti, 1887. 

Bouquet, Henry, Colonel (ed. ) . Relation historique de 1' expedition contre les Indiens 
de l'Ohio en mdcclxiv. Par C. G. F. Dumas. Amsterdam, 1769. 

Boyd, George. Papers of George Boyd, Indian Agent 1797-1820, 2 vols. 
MSS in Wis. Hist. Soc. MS collection. 

Brereton, John A. Florae Columbians prodromus. Washington, 1830. 

Beessany, F. J. Relation abregee de quelques missions des pres de la compagnie de 
Jesus dans la Nouvelle- France. Montreal, 1852. 

Brown, Samuel R. The western gazetteer; or, emigrant's directory, containing a 
geographical description of the western states and territories, viz, the states of 
Ky., Ind., La., Ohio, Tenn., and Miss., and the territories of 111., Mo., Ala., Mich., 
and Northwestern. Auburn, N. Y., 1817. 

Brunson, Alfred. Letter book Lapoint Indian agency, Alfred Brunson sub-agent, 
appointed Oct, 13th, 1842. Sept. 24th, 1842-Feb. 27th, 1844. 
MSS in Wis. Hist. Soc. MS collection. 

Butler, James D. Tay-cho-pe-rah. The four lake country, the first white foot- 
prints there. 

In Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. x, pp. 64-89. 

[This country is the vicinity of Madison, Dane county, Wisconsin.] 

Cannifp, William, M. D. History of the settlement of Upper Canada (Ontario), with 
special reference to the Bay Quinte. Toronto, 1869. 

Carr, Lucien. The mounds of the Mississippi valley historically considered. 
Cincinnati, 1883. 

Reprinted from Memoirs of Kentucky Geological Survey, vol. n (1882). 

. The food of certain American Indians and their methods of preparing it. 

In American Antiquarian Society Proceedings, new series, vol. x, pp. 155-190, 1895. 

Carver, Jonathan. Travels through the interior parts of North America, in the 
years 1766, 1767, and 1768. 111. , with copperplates. [1st ed.] London, 1778. 
[Not to be implicitly depended on as a true narrator of the Indian.] 



1 Later Bishop Baraga. He spent about a half century among the Wisconsin Indians. 



1128 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



Catlix, George. Illustrations of the manners, customs, and condition of the North 
American Indians, with letters and notes written during eight years of travel and 
adventure . . . with . . . engravings from the author's original paintings. 10th 
ed. London, 1866, 2 vols. 

Census, Eleventh, of the United States. Washington, 1890. Indians. 

Chamberlain, A. F. Notes on the history, customs, and beliefs of the Mississagua 
Indians. 

In Journal of Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. I, pp. 150-160, 1888. 

Charlevoix, P. de. Journal d'un voyage fait par ordre du roi dans l'Amerique 
septentrionale. Paris, 1744, 3 vols. 

. Letters to the Duchess of Lesdiguives, giving an account of a voyage to 

Canada . . . London, 1763. 

Copway, George (Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh). Life, history, and travels of Kah-ge-ga- 
gah-bowh (George Copway), Indian chief of the Ojebwa nation. Albany, 1847. 

. Traditional history and characteristic sketches of the Ojibway nation. 

London, 1850. 

Coues, Elliott (ed.). The expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike to headwaters 
of the Mississippi river, during the years 1805-6-7. New ed. , now first reprinted 
in full from the original of 1810, with copious, critical commentary, memoir of 
Pike, new map and other illustrations, and complete index. New York, 1895, 3 
vols. 

■ . History of the expedition under the command of Lewis and Clarke, to 

the sources of the Missouri river, thence across the Rocky mountains and down the 
Columbia river to the Pacific ocean, performed during the years 1804-5-6, by 
order of the government of the United States. A new edition . . . from the 
only authorized edition of 1814 . . . maps and other illustrations, and complete 
index. New York, 1893, 4 vols. 

. New light on the early history of the greater northwest. The manuscript 

journals of Alexander Henry, fur trader of the Northwest company, and of 
David Thompson, official geographer and explorer of the same company, 
1799-1814. Exploration and adventure among the Indians on the Red, Saskat- 
chewan, Missouri, and Columbia rivers. Index and maps. New Y'ork, 1897, 
3 vols. 

Coulter, John M. Manual of the phanerogams and pteridophytes of western Texas. 
In TJ. S. Dept. of Agric, Div. of Botany, Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium, 
vol. II, number 3, p. 511. Washington, May 10, 1894. [Short description.] 

. Upon a collection of plants made by Mr G. C. Nealley, in the region of the 

Rio Grande, in Texas, from Brazos Santiago to El Paso county. 
In Dept. of Agric, Div. of Bot„ U. S. Nat, Herb. Contr., vol. I, pp. 29-65. 

Dablon, Claude, Rev. Plre. Mission du Canada, relation inedites de la Nouvelle- 
France 1672-1679, pour faire suite aux anciennes relations. Avec deux cartes 
ge'ographiques. Paris, 1861, 2 vols. 

The same is also found under title: Relation de ce qui s'est passe de plus remarquable aux 
missions. 

Daelington, William, M. D. Agricultural botany and enumeration and description 
of useful plants. New York, 1847. 

. Flora Cestrica: An attempt to enumerate and describe the flowering and 

filicoid plants of Chester county, Pennsylvania. West Chester, Pennsylvania, 
1837. 



JENKS] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



1129 



Dickson, Robert, and Louis Grignon. Dickson and Grignon papers, 1812-1815. 
In Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. xi, pp. 271-315. 

Dietrich undKonig. Futtermittel, zweite Auflage, i. Berlin, 1891. 

Dorsey, J. Owen. Omaha sociology. 

In Third Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, 1881-82, pp. 211-368. 

Doty, James Duane. Northern Wisconsin in 1820. Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. vn, pp. 
195-206. 

Ducatel, J. J. A fortnight among the Chippewas of Lake Superior. 

In The Indian miscellany ... of the American Aborigines. W. W. Beach (ed.). Albany, 
1877, pp. 361-378. 

Ellet, Elizabeth Fries, Mrs. Summer rambles in the West. New York, 1853. 

Ellis, Albert G. Fifty-four years' recollections of men and events in Wisconsin. 
In Wis. Hist. Colls., vol xn, 1873-76, pp, 206-268. 

Featherstonhaugh, George William. A canoe voyage up the Minnay Sotor [Min- 
nesota river], etc. [111.] London, 1847, 2 vols. 

Flint, Timothy. Condensed geography and history of the western states, or the 
Mississippi valley. Cincinnati, 1828, 2 vols. 

. History and geography of the Mississippi valley, ... 3d ed. Cincinnati, 

1833,2 vols, in 1. 

Flint, Charles L. Grasses and forage plants; a practical treatise comprising their 
natural history. [111.] Rev. ed. Boston, 1888. 

Gordon, Hanford Lenox. Legends of the Northwest. [HI.] St Paul, 1881. 

Hale, Horatio. Indian migrations, as evidenced by language. Chicago, 1883. 
Reprinted from American Antiquarian, Jan. and April, 1883. 

— . The Tutelo tribe and language. 

In Proceedings of American Philosophical Society, vol. XXI, 1883. 

Harmon, Daniel William. Journal of voyages and travels in the interiour of North 
America [Canada] to the Pacific ocean. [Map.] Andover, 1820. 

Hebberd, Stephen Southrick. History of Wisconsin under the dominion of France. 
Madison, Wis., 1890. 
[Very reliable.] 

Hennepin, Louis. Nouvelle decouverte d'un tres grand pays situe dans l'Amerique, 
entre le Nouveau Mexique, et La Mer Glaciale. Avec les cartes & les figures 
n6ceffaires. Utrecht, 1697. 

Henry, Alexander. Travels and adventures in Canada and the Indian territories 
between the years 1760 and 1776. New York, 1809. 

Hind, Henry Youle. Narrative of the Canadian Red river exploring expedition of 
1857, and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan exploring expedition of 1858. 
[111. ] London, 1860, 2 vols. 

Hoffman, Walter James, M. D. The Menomini Indians. 

In Fourteenth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 11-328, 1892-93, part 1. 

Hunter, John Dunn. Memoirs of a captivity among the Indians of North America, 
from childhood to the age of 19. Descriptive of their manners and customs. 
To which is added some account of the soil, climate, and vegetable productions 
of the territory westward of the Mississippi. [3d ed., with additions.] London, 
1824. 



I 



1130 WILD KTCE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 

Indian Affairs, Annual Report of the Commissioner of. 

From the formation of the Government up to and including the year 1835 reports on Indian 
affairs were not printed in separate volumes. The Indians were controlled by a division of the 
War Department until 1832, when the division was made a bureau. Previous to 1836 the 
reports may be found only in Senate and House Documents, and in American State Papers, 
Indian Affairs (2 vols.), until 1827. 

Jahresbericht fiber die Fortschritte der Agrikulturchemie; ffinfter Jahrgang, 1862- 
1863. 

Jones, Peter, Rev. Life and Journals of Kah-ke-wa-quo-na-by: (Rev. Peter Jones), 
Wesleyan missionary. Toronto, 1860. 

Keating, William. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St Peters river [Minne- 
sota river], Lake Winnepeek, Lake of trie Woods, etc., performed in the year 
1823, under the command of Stephen H. Long. Philadelphia, 1824, 2 vols. 
[Compiled from notes of Messrs Long, Say, Keating, and others.] 

Kinzie, John H., Mrs. Wau-Bun, the early day in the Northwest. [111.] New 
York, 1856. 

Kohl, Johann Georg. Kitchi-Gami, wanderings round Lake Superior. London, 
1860. 

. Travels in Canada and through the states of New York and Pennsylvania. 

Translated by Mrs Percy Sinnett. London, 1861, 2 vols, in 1. 

Krautbauer, F. X., Bishop. Short sketch of the history of the Menominee Indians 
of Wisconsin and the Catholic missions among them. Philadelphia, October, 
1887. 

In American Catholic Historical Researches, vol. IV, number 2, pp. 152-158. 

La Harpe, Bernard de. Journal historique de l'etablissement des Francaise a la 
Louisiane. Paris, 1831. 

Lockwood, James H. Early times and events in Wisconsin. 

In Wis. Hist. Colls, vol. n, app. 6, pp. 98-196. 
Long, John. Voyages and travels of an Indian interpreter and trader [among] the 

North American Indians, [with] a vocabulary of the Chippeway and other Indian 

languages. London, 1791. 

Long, Stephen H. Narrative . . . (See Keating. ) 

McGee, W J. The Siouan Indians: a preliminary sketch. 

In Fifteenth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 153-204, 1893-94. 

McKenney, Thomas L. Memoirs, official and personal; with sketches of travels 
among the northern and southern Indians; and descriptions of scenes along the 
western borders. New York, 1846, 2 vols, in 1. 

— . Sketches of a tour of the lakes, of the character and customs of the Chippe- 
way Indians; also a vocabulary of the Algic, or Chippeway language. [111.] 
Baltimore, 1827. 

Mac Cauley, Clay. The Seminole Indians of Florida. 

In Fifth Annual Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84, pp. 469-531. 

Mackenzie, Alexander. Voyages from Montreal, on the river St Lawrence, through 
the continent of North America, to the frozen and Pacific oceans; in the years 
1789 and 1793 . . . preliminary account ... of the fur trade of that country. 
[111. with maps.] London, 1801. 

MacMillan, Conway. The metaspermse of the Minnesota valley. A list of the 
higher seed-producing plants indigenous to the drainage basin of the Minnesota 
river. 

In Minnesota Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Botanical series, 1. Minneapolis, 1892. 



JENKS] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



1131 



Mallery, Garrick. On the pictographs of the North American Indians. 
In Fourth Annual Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 13-254, 1882-83. 

Margry, Pierre (ed. ). Decouvertes et etablissements des Francais . . . dans . . . 
1' Amerique 1614-1754. Paris, 1876-86, 6 vols. 

Merrell, Henry. Winnebago dictionary. 

(A manuscript list of Winnebago words and their English equivalents, as prepared for personal 
use by Mr Merrell, a Portage trader. A copy of the manuscript is in the library of the Wisconsin 
Historical Society.) 

Mooney, James. The Siouan tribes of the East (Bulletin). "Washington, 1894; 100 p. 
Bulletin 22 of the Bureau of Ethnology. 

Morse, Jedidiah, D. D. Report to the Secretary of War of the U. S., comprising a 
narrative of a tour performed in 1820 to ascertain the actual state of the Indian 
tribes. New Haven, 1822. 

Neill, Edward Duffield. The beginnings of organized society in the St Croix val- 
ley, Minnesota. St. Paul, 1890. 

In Macalester College Contributions, series 1, number 3. See also Warren, History of Ojibways. 

. Memoir of the Sioux. A manuscript in the French archives, now first 

printed, with introduction and notes. St. Paul, 1890. 
In Macalester College Cont., series 1, number 10. 

. The history of Minnesota from the earliest French explorations to the pres- 
ent time. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. Minneapolis, 1882. 

. History of the Ojibways, and their connection with fur traders, based upon 

official and other records. 

In Minn. Hist. Soc. Colls., vol. v, pp. 397-510. 

Newberry, J. S. Food and fiber plants of the North American Indians. 
In Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxxu, pp. 31^6 (November, 1887). 

Nicollet, Jos. Nicolas. Report intended to illustrate a map of the hydrographical 
basin of the upper Mississippi river, 1841. Washington, 1843. 
Also TJ. S. Senate Docs., 26th Cong., 2d sess., vol. v, part 2, 1840-41. 
Also TJ. S. Exec. Docs., 28th Cong., 2d sess., vol. II, 1844-45. 

0' Callahan, E. B. Documents relative to the colonial history of tne state of New 
York, vol. ix. Albany, 1855. 

Palmer, Edward. Food products of the North American Indians. 
In Rept. of the Dept. of Agriculture, 1870-71. 

Perrot, Nicolas. Circa 1644-1718. Memoire sur les moeurs, coustumes et relligion 
des sauvages de 1' Amerique septentrionale. Publiee pour le premiere fois par le 
R. P. J. Tailhan. Leipzig, 1864. 

Pickering, Charles. Chronological history of plants: man's record of his own 
existence illustrated through their names, uses, and companionship. Boston, 
1879. 

Pike, Zebulon Montgomery. Account of expeditions to the sources of the Missis- 
sippi and through the western parts of Louisiana . . . during the years 1805, 
1806, and 1807, and a tour through the interior parts of New Spain, 1807. Illus. 
by maps and charts. Philadelphia, 181 0, 2 vols. 

Provancher, Abbe L. Flore canadienne, ou description de toutes les plantes des 
forets, champs, jardins et eaux du Canada. Quebec, 1862, 2 vols. 

Pursh, Frederick. Flora Americae septentrionalis, 2d ed. London, 1816, 2 vols. 



1132 



WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.axs.19 



Radissox, Peter Esprit. Voyages, . . . being an account of his travels and experi- 
ences among the North American Indians from 1652 to 1684. With historical 
illustrations and an introduction by Gideon D. Scull. Boston, 1885. 
Publication of the Prince Society (16). 

Riggs, Stephen Return. Dakota-English Dictionary. 

7» Dept. of Interior, U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surrey of the Rocky Mountain region, Contr. to 
North Amer. Ethnology, vol. vll. Washington. 1890. Edited by Jas. Owen Dorsey. 

Rydberg, P. A. Flora of the sand hills of Nebraska. 

In U. S. Dept. of Agric Div. of Botany. Contributions from U. S. National Herbarium, vol. in, 
number 3, p. 187: Washington. Sept. 14, 1895. « 

Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe. Summary narrative of an exploring expedition to the 
sources of the Mississippi river in 1820; resumed and completed by the discovery 
of its origin in Itasca lake in 1S32. Philadelphia, 1855. 

. Historical and statistical information respecting the history, condition, and 

prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States. Philadelphia, 6 vols., 1851- 
1857. 

. Thirty years with the Indian tribes. Philadelphia, 1851. 

Scribxer, F. Lamson-. Useful and Ornamental Grasses. 

In U. S. Dept. of Agric, Div. of Agrostology, Bulletin 3. Washington, 1896. 

. American Grasses, 1." 

In TJ. S. Dept. of Agric, Div. of Agrostology, Bulletin 7, revised ed. Washington, 1898. 

Selkirk's, Lord, settlement. Statement respecting the Earl of Selkirk's settlement 
upon the Red river, in North America; its destruction in 1S15 and 1816, etc. 
London, 1S17. 

Seymour, E. S. Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the west. With map. 
New York, 1850. 

Shea, John Gilmary. Discovery and exploration of the Mississippi valley; with 
the original narratives of Marquette, Allouez, Membre, Hennepin, and Anastase 
Douay. 

In French's Historical Collections of Louisiana, part i; New York, 1852. 

(ed.). Early voyages up and down the Mississippi by Cavalier St Cosme, Le 

Sueur, Gravier, and Guignas. 

In Munsell's Historical Ser.. number 8. Albany, 1861. 

Smith, John. Dictionary of economic plants. New York, 18S2. 

Smith, John (Captain). True travels, adventures, and observations in Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and America, [and] Generall historie of Virginia, New-England, and 
the Summer isles. From the London ed. of 1629. Richmond, 1S19. 2 vols. 
Note — The "Generall historie." in vol. n, has a separate title page. 

Stickxey, Gardner P. Indian use of wild-rice. 

In Amer. Anthrop., vol. IX, pp. 115-121 (April, 1894). 

. The use of maize by Wisconsin Indians. 

Parkman Club Publications. 13. March 9, 1897. Milwaukee. 

Strachey, William. Historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia; edited by R. H. 
Major. London, 1849. 

Hakluyt Soc. Pubis., vol. vi. Strachey was first secretary of the colony. The period referred 
to is 1610, 1611, and 1612. 

Si'mmerfield, John (Sahgahjewagahbahweh). Sketch of grammar of the Chippe- 
way language, to which is added a vocabulary, 35 pp. Cazenovia, X. Y., 1S34. 

Taxxer, John. Narrative of the captivity and adventures . . . during thirty years 
residence among the Indians in the interior of North America; edited by Edwin 
James, M. D. New York, 1830. 



JENKS] 



CORRESPONDENTS 



1133 



Tanner, Edward. Detroit Gazette, 1819-20. 

Tenesles, Nicola. The Indian of New-England . . . with Etchemin and Micmac 
vocabularies, derived from the Indian by Joseph Barratt. [Middletown, Conn. , 
1851.] Also bound with the same, Key to the Indian language of New England, 
number 1. [Middletown, 1851.] 

Thwaites, Reuben Gold. Historic waterways. Chicago, 1888. 

— . History of Winnebago county, from the Oshkosh Times, 1877. 

(ed. ). The Jesuit relations and allied documents. Cleveland, 1896+, 73 vols. 

Titford, W. J. Sketches toward a hortus botanicus Americanus or, colored plates 
... of new and valuable plants of the West Indies, and North and South 
America. London, 1811. 

[Traill, Catherine Parr.] The backwoods of Canada: being letters from the wife of 
aii emigrant officer. London, 1836. 

Traill, Catherine Parr. Canadian Crusoes. A tale of the Rice lake plains. 
Edited by Agnes Strickland. 2d ed. London, 1862. 

Trelease, William. Preliminary list of Wisconsin parasitic fungi. 

In Transactions of Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters, vol. vi, 1881-1883. Madison, 1885. 

Upham, Warren. Catalogue of the flora of Minnesota, including its phrenogamous 
and vascular cryptogamous plants, indigenous, naturalized, and adventive. The 
geological and natural history survey of Minnesota. Minneapolis, 1884. 

Verwyst, Chrysostom, Reverend. Missionary labors of Fathers Marquette, Menard, 
and Allouez in the Lake Superior region. Milwaukee, 1886. 

. Historic sites on Chequamegon bay. 

In Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. xin, pp. 426-440. 1895. 

. Geographical names in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan having a Chip- 
pewa origin. 

In Wis. Hist. Colls., vol. XII, pp. 390-398. 

Warden, D. B. Statistical, political, and historical account of the United States of 
North America; from the period of their first colonization to the present day. 
Edinburgh, 1819, 3 vols. 

Warren, William W. History of the Ojibways, based upon traditions and oral 
statements. 

In Minnesota Historical Society Colls., vol. v, 1885, pp. 23-394. Also contains History of the 
Ojibways and their connection with fur traders, based upon official and other records, by 
Edward D. Neill, pp. 395-510. 

Webber, Herbert J. (See Bessey, Chas. E. ) 

Williams, Thomas A. Grasses and forage plants of the Dakotas. 

In U. S. Dept. of Agric, Div. of Agrostology, Bulletin 6. Washington, 1897. 
Wilson, Edward F., Reverend. The Ojebwa language: a manual for missionaries 
and others employed among the Ojebwa Indians. Toronto, 1874. 

LIST OF CORRESPONDENTS 

Ash, Benjamin C, Lower Brule, South Dakota, February 24,1899 (agent of Lower 

Brule agency, South Dakota). 
Barton, N. W., Baltimore, Maryland (about December 10, 1898) . 
Begg, Magnus, Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada, January 17, 1899 (agent of the 

Coucheeching agency, Ontario, Canada, about Rainy lake) . 
Bessey, Charles E., Lincoln, Nebraska, December 9, 1898. 
Beyer, George E., New Orleans, Louisiana, December 19, 1898. 

Bingenheimer, George H, Fort Yates, North Dakota, November 15,1898 (agent of 
Standing Rock Agency, North Dakota). 

19 ETH, PT 2—01 37 



1134 



WILD KICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth. a.n.v. 19 



Bishop, W, H., Newark, Delaware, December 12, 1898. 
Blankinship, J. W., Bozeman, Montana, December 12, 1898. 
Brannon, Melvin A., Grand Forks, North Dakota, December 10, 1898. 
Bray, William L., Austin, Texas, December 13, 1898. 
Campbell, John C, Athens, Georgia, April 13, 1899. 

Clapp, William R. (Major, U.S.A.), Pine Ridge, South Dakota, November 12, 1898 

u (agent of Pine Ridge Agency, South Dakota). 
Clinton, G. P., Urbana, Illinois, May 3, 1899. 

Coues, Elliott (M. D.) , Washington, District of Columbia, February 16, 1S99. 
Crandall, C. S. , Fort Collins, Colorado, December 12, 189S. 
Cfrrie Brothers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, May 6, 1899. 
Davy, J. Burtt, Berkeley, California, December 6, 1898. 
Dodson, W. R., Ann Arbor, Michigan, November 12, 1898. 
Evans, A. Grant, Muscogee, Indian Territory, April 25, 1899. 
Evans, Alexander W., New Haven, Connecticut, January 3, 1899. 
Fernald, M. L., Cambridge, Massachusetts, December 12, 16, 1898. 
Garman, H., Lexington, Kentucky, December 17, 1898. 

George, D. H., Keshena, Wisconsin, December 8, 1898 (agent of Green Bay agency. 
Wisconsin ) . 

Getchell, Fred O. , Fort Totten, North Dakota, November 10, 1898 (agent of Devils 

Lake agency, North Dakota). 
Gheen, Stephen, Nett Lake, Minnesota, November 15, 1898 (Government farmer, 

Nett Lake reservation, Minnesota) . 
Gilfillan, J. A., 1 White Earth, Minnesota, May 4, 1896. 
Goodrich, D. L. , Hampton, Virginia, December 10, 1898. 
Grant, A. J., Plymouth, New Hampshire, December 22, 1898. 

Harding, John W., Greenwood, South Dakota, November 10, 1S98 (agent of Yankton 

agency, South Dakota) . 
Harvey, F. Z. , Orono, Maine, December 9, 1898. 
Henderson, L. F., Moscow, Idaho, December 11, 1S98. 
Hillman, F. H., Reno, Nevada, December 12, 1898. 
Hitchcock, A. S., Manhattan, Kansas, April 24, 1899. 
Holferty, G. M., Cincinnati, Ohio, April 17, 1899. 
Howard, 0., Salt Lake City, Utah, December 13, 1898. 
Jesup, Henry G., Hanover, New Hampshire, December 13, 1898. 
Johnson, Nathan P., Sisseton agency, South Dakota, November 19,1898 (agent of 

Sisseton agency, South Dakota). 
Jones, L. R., Burlington, Vermont, December 27, 1898. 
Jones, Marcus E., Salt Lake City, Utah, December 23, 1898. 
Lake, E. R., Corvallis, Oregon, December 30, 1898. 
Langlois, A. B., St. Martinsville, Louisiana, November 21, 189S. 
McBain, Samuel, Knoxville, Tennessee, December 9, 1898. 

McChesney, Charles E., Rosebud, South Dakota, November 12, 1S98 (agent of Rose- 
bud agency, South Dakota). 
McNeill, Jerome, Fayetteville, Arkansas, December 21, 1898. 
Macfarlane, John M., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, December 12, 1898. 
Mack ay, A. H., Halifax, jSova Scotia, May 1, 1899. 
Macloskie, G., Princeton, New Jersey, December 15, 1898. 

Markle, J. A., Birtle, Manitoba, Canada, November 21, 1898 (Indian agent of 

Western Manitoba, Canada). 
Martineaf, H., Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, Canada, November IS, 1S98 (Indian 

agent in the Lake Manitoba Indian inspectorate). 
Mathews, C. W., Lexington, Kentucky, December 15, 1898. 

i Kindness of Mr Gardner P. Stickney, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 



JENKS] 



CORRESPONDENTS 



1135 



Matsumuea, J., Tokyo, Japan, December 6, 1898 (professor of botany at the 

Imperial University). 
May, L. L., & Co., St. Paul, Minnesota, May 10, 1899. 
Mill, P. H., Auburn, Alabama, May 1, 1899. . 
Moore, C. W., 1 Chetek, Wisconsin, April 29, 1896. 
Mottier, D. M., Bloomington, Indiana, December 26, 1898. 

Motzfeldt, J., Pelican Lake, Wisconsin, December 3, 1898. Mr Motzfeldt has lived 

about forty years in the above district. 
Nelson, Aven, Laramie, Wyoming, December 12, 1898. 
Newcombe, F. C, Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 9, 1898. 
Oppel, Charles C., 1 Tower, Minnesota, May 4, 1896. 

Paddock, L. A., Grass Lake, Illinois, January 20, 1899. Mr Paddock has lived 

sixty years on Grass lake, where there are 2,000 acres of Zizania aquatica. 
Patterson, Roger, Odanah, Wisconsin, November 23, 1898 (Government farmer, 

Bad River reservation, Wisconsin). 
Phalon, Peter, Cloquet, Wisconsin, December 27, 1898 (Government farmer, Fond 

du Lac reservation, Wisconsin). 
Pither, Robert J. N., Rat Portage, Ontario, Canada, December 5, 1898. Mr Pither 

was in the Hudson Bay Company twenty-five years and Indian agent in the 

Coucheeching Agency district of Ontario twenty-five years. 
Pokagon, Simon (Chief), Hartford, Michigan, November 10 and 16, 1898. Simon 

Pokagon was the last chief of the Potawatomi Indians. He died at his home 

in Hartford January 27, 1899. 
Ramaley, Francis, Boulder, Colorado, December 9, 1898. 

Reid, James G., Cheyenne River agency, South Dakota, November 11, 1898 (agent 

of Cheyenne River agency, South Dakota) . 
Richards, Thomas, Elbowoods, North Dakota, November 17, 1898 (agent of Fort 

Bert hold agency). 

Rodman, N. D., Reserve, Wisconsin, November 11, 1898, and February 14, March 1, 

1899 (Govei'nment farmer, Lac Courte Oreilles reservation, Wisconsin). 
Rolfs, P. H.,Lake City, Florida, December 10 and 19, 1898. 
Rumsey, W. E., Morgantown, West Virginia, December 17, 1898. 
Saunders, D. W., Brookings, South Dakota, January 4, 1899. 
Scribner, F. Lamson-, Washington, District of Columbia, April 25, 1899. 
Shimek, B., Iowa City, Iowa, December 7, 1898. 

Stephens, J. H., Crow Creek, South Dakota, November 16, 1898 (agent of Crow 

Creek agency, South Dakota). 
Stuntz, A. C, Monroe, Wisconsin, November 24, 1898. Mr Stuntz was among the 

Ojibwa Indians in northern Wisconsin from the year 1848 until 1882. 
Sutherland, John H., White Earth, Minnesota, December 14, 1898 (agent of White 

Earth agency, Minnesota). 
Tourney, J. W., Tucson, Arizona, December 7, 1898. 
Tracy, S. M., Agricultural College P. O., Mississippi, December 13, 1898. 
Tubner, James G. (M. D. ), L'Anse, Michigan, December 7, 1898 (agent of the 

Mackinac agency, Michigan). 
Tuttle, A. H., Charlottesville, Virginia, November 20, 1898, and January 19, 1899. 
Wheeler, C. F., Lansing, Michigan, December 14, 1898. 

Williamson, John P. (Reverend), Greenwood, South Dakota, November 30, 1898, 
and January 21,1899. Mr Williamson and his father before him have been 
lifelong missionaries to the Dakota Indians. 

Wilson, H. U., Chapel Hill, North Carolina, February 15, 1899. 

Wooton, E. O., Mesilla Park, New Mexico, December 22, 1898. 



i Kindness of Mr Gardner P. Stickney, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 



1136 WILD RICE GATHERERS OF UPPER LAKES [eth.ann.19 



CHRONOLOGIC LIST OF MAPS. 

1670-71. Map published in Relations des Jesuites (1670-71), Dablon. 
Before 1716. Map of North America, Herman Moll. 
[1673.] Fac simile de la Carte du Pere Marquette. 

1687. Amphissimse Regions Mississippi . . . after Hennepin. 

1688. Une partie de la Carte oe L'Amerique Septentrionale en L'Annee 1688, par 

J. Baptiste Louis Franquentin HYDE DU Roy A Quebec en Canada. ( Copy 
made by I. A. Lapham from Chicago Historical Collection, which was 
destroyed by the Chicago fire in 1871. ) 
1718. Le Canada, ou Nouvelle-France . . . (Paris). 

1720. A New Map of the North Parts of America claimed by France, H. Moll. 

1720. Moll's America, Herman Moll. 

1730 (circa). America Septentrionalis, G. De L'Isle. 

[1740 to 1750.] America, John Bowles & Son (London). 

[1746.] Amerique Septentrionale, D'Arville. 

1750. Amerique Septentrionale, L. S r Robert De Vaugondy. 

1750 (circa). A Map of the British Plantations on the Continent of North America, 
Henry Overton. 

1755. Nieuwe Kaart van de Grootbrittanische Volkplantingen in Noord America, 
Isaak Tirion. 

1755. Canada Louisiane et Terres Angloises, Le S r D'Anville. 
1776-78. Map with Carver's Travels. 

[1778]. A New Map of the Western Parts of Virginia, Pennsylvania . . . Tho. 
Hutchins. 

1791. Sketch of the Western Countries of Canada, 1791, with J. Long's Voyages and 

Travels, etc. (see Bibliography). 
[1795] . A Map of the Western Part of the Territories belonging to the United States. 
1799. States of America, J. Russell. 

1796-1802. [Map of New Eng., New York, New Jersey, Penn., and parts of Canada.] 
London, A. Arrowsmith, Jan. 1, 1796. Additions, 1802. 

1804. Map of the United States, Abraham Bradley, Jun r . 

1805. Map of the State of Ohio, Rufus Putnam, Surveyor-General of the United 

States. 

1806. Lewis and Clarke's Map. 

1816. Map of the United States, John Melish. 
[1817]. United States of America, No. 55. 

1820. Map of western end of Lake Superior, p. 105, in Schoolcraft's Summary o 
an expedition to the sources of the Mississippi (see Schoolcraft, ii 
Bibliography) . 

1835. A Map of a portion of the Indian Country Lying East & West of Miss., fol 
the Topographical Bureau. 

1835. Reconnoissance of the Minnay Sotor Watapah; or St Peters river [Minnesota 
river] to its sources, by G. W. Featherstonhaugh, U. S. Geologist (one of 
two maps accompanying Featherstonhaugh' s Report of a Geological Recon- 
noissance, 1835). 

1835. Map of the Surveyed Parts of Wisconsin Territory. 

1836. Map of the Territory of Wisconsin, David H. Burr. 

1836. Map of the Territories of Michigan and Ouisconsin, John Farmer. 

1836. The Tourist's Pocket Map of Michigan, by J. H. Young; published by S. 

Augustus Mitchell. [Philadelphia.] 

1837. Topographical Map of Wisconsin Territory, Robert T. Lyttle, Surveyor-General- 

1838. Map of the Settled Part of Wisconsin and Iowa, Augustus Mitchell. 



JENKS] 



MAPS 



1137 



1839. Map of Wiskonsin Territory compiled from public Surveys, Capt. T. J. Cram. 

1843. Hydrographical Basis of the Upper Mississippi Eiver from observations, etc, 

J. N. Nichollet. 

1844. Map of Wiskonsan, Charles Doty and Francis Hudson. 
1848. United States of America, Sherman and Smith, New York. 

1848. Parmer's 4th Sheet or Map of Wisconsin, Iowa and Northern Part of Illinois, 

John Farmer, Detroit. 

1849. Map of the Territory of Minnesota, exhibiting route of the Expedition to the 

Red river of the North in the Summer of 1849, Capt. John Pope. 

1850. General Karte der Vereinigten Staaten von Nord-Amerika, Albrecht Piatt 

(after T. Calvin Smith's New York Karten). 
1850. The State of Wisconsin, I. A. Lapham, Milwaukee. 

1856. Map of Southern Minn, and Part of Wisconsin, Harris, Cowles & Co., Boston. 

1857. Railroad map of Wisconsin, Rufus Blanchard, Chicago. 

1860. Sectional Map of the Surveyed Portion of Minn, and Northwestern Part of Wis. 

1861. Map Supplement to Illustrated London News, June 1st, 1861, of the United 

States of North America. 

1862. Lloyd's New Map of United States, the Canadas, and New Brunswick. 
1866. Blanchard's Map of the North Western States, Chicago. 

1869. Blanchard's map of North Western States, Chicago. 
1874. The Illustrated Historical Atlas of the State of Minnesota, 1874, Chicago. 
1879. Department of Interior, General Land Office, State of Minnesota. 
1892. Rand, McNally & Co.'s Sectional Map of Michigan, Chicago. 

1892. Rand, McNally & Co.'s Sectional Map of Minnesota, Chicago. 

1893. The Lake Region of Northern Wisconsin and Michigan, Ring, Fowle & Co., 

Milwaukee. 

1894. Goodhue County Plat Book, 1894. 

[1895]. Map of the Famous Hunting and Fishing Grounds embraced in the Lake 

Region of Michigan and Wisconsin, Poole Bros., Chicago. 
1896. The Railroad Map of Wisconsin, D. J. McKenzie, Railroad Commissioner. 



INDEX TO PART 2 



Page 

AALTf , see Alosaka. 

— , religious society at Walpi, source and 

census of.. . T 623,627 

Abiquiu, site of ancient Josoge 611 

Acoma or Akokaiobi, settlement of 589 

— , an example of naturally fortified pu- 
eblo 641-642 

Adams, on scientific synonym for wild 

rice 1021 

Addis, on magical numbers.. 848,849 

Agriculture, influence of, on pueblo 

architecture 640, 642-643 

Aguacateca method of forming numer- 
als above ten 905 

— , number names of 862 

Ahau symbol, discovery concerning, by 

Goodman 712 

— , Goodman on 717 

— , working table of 819 

Aino method of forming numbers above 

ten... 913 

— , use of vigesimal system by 925 

Aiwakokwe clan, same as Asa clan 610 

Akal'jiak, number names of 874 

Akokaiobi or Acoma, settlement of 589 

— , home of Asa clan . 610 

Ala clan, mythic origin of 590-591 

— , relations of, with Tciia 588-590 

AlagHilac, number names of.. 867,928 

Ala-Lenya (Horn-Flute) CLAN,advent 

of, at Walpi 585-586, 590-594 

— , ceremony of advent of, at Walpi 591-592 

— GROUP, Ala clans of 583 

— , Lenya clans of 583 

— societies, probable origin of 626 

Alchemy, stepping-stone to modern sci- 
ence 825-826 

Alejandre, Marcelo, onHuastecan nu- 
meral system 894 

Algonquian, influence of, on westward 
migration of Siouan stock 1043 

— language, influence of, on geographic 
nomenclature 1115 

Alien residents, influence of, on pueblo 
architecture 649-650 

Allen, J. A., on American bison in Pied- 
mont area 1043 

Alligator, effigy of, in Santa Rita 
mounds 680,684 

Allouez, PfiRE Claude, on Maskotin use 
of wild rice 1054 

Almacabala, modern vestiges of 847-851 

— , stepping stone to modern science ... 825-826 

Alosaka, Patun germ-god 595-596 



Page 

Alsea, amounts of wild rice harvested 
by , .' 1076 

American Anthropologist, reference 
to... 632 

American Antiquarian Society, on 
Mayan inscriptions _ 700 

American Fur Company, dependence 
of, on wild rice 1103-1104 

American Museum op Natural His- 
tory, on Mayan inscriptions 700 

Anawita, chief of Pitka, mention of 597 

— , on advent of clans at Walpi 585 

— , Hopi Rain-cloud clan chief, reference 
to 579 

Ancestor worship, in Snake dance . 965-966, 

1008 

Animal effigies, in mounds at Santa 

Rita 678-685 

Antelope altar, characteristics of 968 

— , at Mishongnovi. 966-969 

— , at Walpi... 980 

— CLAN, See TCUBIO CLAN*. 

— priests, part played by, in Antelope 

and Snake dances _ 974-975 

— , same as Tcubwimpkia _ 623-624 

— , in Walpi Snake dance 984-985 

— and Snake dances 973-976 

— society, census of 625 

— , ki va of , at Mishongnovi 966 

Anu, Hopi clan, reference to. 583 

Anza, governor of New Mexico, refer- 
ence to 611 

Apache, raids of, on Sobaipuri, etc 598 

—influence of, on Hopi removal from old 

Walpi 580 

— , on Patki migrations 597 

— , on Tusayan migrations 626 

Architecture, pueblo, modifying influ- 
ences on 640-644, 646-648 

Armstrong, Perry A., on meaning of 

Sauk and Fox tribal names 1050 

Arhowsmith, A., on influence of wild 

rice on geographic nomenclature 1116, 

1117, 1121 

— , on territory of " Wild-rice Indians".. 1042 

Arts, primitive, egoism reflected in 832 

Asa (Tansy-Mustard) clan, advent of, 
at Walpi 585-586 

— or Tcakwaina clans, migrations and 
census of 610-613 

— group, component clans of 584 

Ash-bark wigwam, see List of illustra- 
tions 1017 

Aspergill, importance of, in Snake cer- 
emonies 974 

1139 



1140 

Page 

Assiniboin, tribal history, migrations, 

and settlement of 1054-1055 

— , meaning of tribal name of 1054 

— , relations between, and Saulteaux 1040 

— sow wild rice 1057 

— consume wild rice 1055 

Astrology, stepping-stone to modern 

science 835-826 

Atoko clan, with the Patuii clan 595 

Atwater, Caleb, on duck in Winnipeg 

river - 1098 

— , on synonym for Menomini Indians ... 1048 

— , on wild rice in Wisconsin river 1034 

— , on Winnebago storing food .. 1071,1073 

Augmentation, law of, in primitive 

numbers i 839-842 

Austin, Amory, on composition of white 

. rice 1082 

Awata clan, same as Pakab clans 608-609 

Awatobi, advent of Patun clans at 595 

— , destruction of, referred to . _ 586 

— , founded by Pakab-Awata clans 609 

— , probable home of Pakab clans 608 

Aztec or Nahuatl method of forming 

numerals above ten ._ 883-885 

Badger clan, see Honani clan. 

Bakairi, number names of __ 877 

Bancroft, Hubert H. . on Huavean num- 
bers .- 918 

— , on meaning of Mayan number names. 876 

— , on migrations of Tanoan . . 611 

Bandelier, on foundation of Josoge 611 

Bandoliers, used by priests in Snake 

ceremonies _ 971,972 

Baraga, Frederic, on meaning of 

Ojibwa word " manominikewin " 1061 

— , on Ojibwa wild-rice moon . . 1089 

Baroena, Alonso, on Tabo numeration. 838 

Barley, chemical composition of 1082 

Barratt, Joseph, on meaning of 

"min" , 1024 

Barton, N. W., on wild rice in Maryland. 1030 
Basalenque, Diego, on Tarasco num- 
ber words 880 

Bear clan, see Honau clan. 

— , same as Ke clan 615,618 

— , associated with Snake- Antelope so- 
cieties at Walpi 624 

Beef, dried, chemical composition of 1082 

Bell, Chas. N., on influence of wild rice 

on geographic nomenclature 1121 

Belmar, Francisco, on Trike numerals. 908 

— , on Mazateca method of counting 879 

— , on formation of Mazateca numbers 

above ten : 888-889 

— , on Zapotecan number names 872 

Beltrami, J. C, on Dakota wild-rice 

moon 1090 

— , on influence of wild rice on geo- 
graphic nomenclature 1121, 1122 

— , on population of Fox 1051 

Beltran, on Maya numerals 897 

— , on Maya numerals above ten 890-893 

Bentham, on wild rice in eastern Russia. 1037 

— and Hooker, on scientific synonym 

for wild rice 1021 



]eth. ANN. 19 
Page 

Berendt, Dr Carl Hermann, on Maya 
numeral system 892 

Berra, Orozco y., on origin of Mexican 
number names 875 

Bessey, Charles E., on wild rice in Ne- 
braska 1031 

— and Weber, on wild rice in Nebraska. 1022 

Betoya, number names of 877 

Beyer, Geo. E., on wild rice in Louisi- 
ana 1030 

Biddle, James W., on duck in Green 
bay 1098 

— , on wild rice eaten with corn and 
fish - 1084 

Binary concept, among primitive peo- 
ple .. 836-838 

Binary-ternary system, among primi- 
tive people 842, 847-848 

Birch-bark boxes, " mococks," usedf or 
storing and carrying wild rice . 1066, 1072 

— canoe, used in wild rice harvest .. 1017, 

1056-1070 

— fans, used in winnowing wild rice 1071 

— and matting wigwam, see List of 
Illustrations 1017 

— Winnowing tray for wild rice 1017, 

1070-1071 

Bird effigies, at Mishongnovi Cakwal- 

efiya altar _ 992 

— , at Mishongnovi Flute altar 991 

— , at Shipaulovi altar 995 

Birds, destructive to wild rice 1027 

Bishop,W.H, on wild rice in Delaware.. 1029 
Bison, influence of, on modern Dakota 

migrations ... 1044 

— , possible influence of, on early Siouan 

migrations 1043 

Blackbird, Andrew J., on meaning 

and use of " min " 1024 

Blair, Miss Emma Helen, authority on 

writings of Jesuites 1113 

Blankinship, J. W., on absence of wild 

rice in Montana 1031 

Blue Flute (Cakwalenya), alta, at 

Mishongnovi 989 

Borgian codex, cited 861 

— , Nahuatlan numbers from 944-945 

Boturini, Lorenzo Benaduci, on Mexi- 
can calendar system 935 

Bouquet, Henry, on Indian population 

in 1764. 1108 

Bourgeois, Enrique, on Quekchian 

numerals 901-903 

Boyd, George, on trading posts in the 

wild-rice fields 1104 

Bowles, John, and Son, map by, locates 

Maskotin 1054 

Brannon, Melvin A., on wild rice in 

North Dakota 1031 

Brasseur, de Bourbourg, on formation 

of Maya number names 866 

— , on Kiche numerals 864, 895-899 

— , on Maya methods of computation 933 

— , on Maya numeral system 894 

Bray, William M., on wild rice in 

Texas 1032 



INDEX 



ETH. ANN. 19] 



Page 

Bressany, Martin, on tying wild rice... 1058 
— , wild rice harvesting illustration, ref- 
erence to _ 1057 

Bribrt, numerals of 919 

Brinton, Dr D. G., on Alaguilac num- 
ber names 867 

— , on archaic form of Maya day names. 864 

— , on Cakchikel numerals 900 

— , on early Central American day 

names 808 

— , on formula " unity of mind " 827 

— , on interpretation of Ik ■ 746 

— , on Maya numeral system 891,894 

— , on Maya, time periods. 715 

— , on Rama numerals 918 

— , on time of adoption of thirteen as group 

order 953 

— , translation by. quoted from Goodman. 717 

— , on Tzental number seven . ._ 951 

— , on Uto-Aztecan family 866 

— , on Xincan number names 881 

Britton, Dr N. L., on fossil Zizania in 

New Jersey... 1031 

Brook trout, whole, chemical composi- 
tion of 1081 

Brown, Samuel R., on birds destructive 

to wild rice 1027 

— , on Menomini gathering wild rice . 1062 

— , on popular synomyn for wild rice 1023 

— , on tying wild rice _ 1058 

— , on wild-rice field in "Wisconsin 1033 

Brunca, numerals of 919 

Brunson, Alfred, on relative value to 
Ojibwa of Government annuity and 

natural products 1096-1097 

Bryant, wild rice harvesting illustra- 
tions, reference to 1057 

Buchanan, James, on synonym for Me- 
nomini ... 1048 

Buelna, Eustaquio, on Cahita number 

names 887 

— , on Cahita numerals 908 

Bun or Butterfly clan, same as Ho- 

nani or Badger clan 607 

— , advent of, at Walpi 585 

Bureau of American Ethnology, 
Eighth Annual Report of, cited on Tu- 

sayan architecture 579 

Burg OA, on Huave numbers 918 

Burr, David H., on influence of wild 



rice on geographic nomenclature . . 1121, 1122 
Bushnell, D. P., on relative value to 
Ojibwa of wild rice and Government 



annuity 1036 

Butler, James D., on wild rice in vicin- 
ity of Madison, Wisconsin 1036 

Butterflies, depicted on Walpi Snake 
altar 983 

Butterfly clan, see Buli clan. 

Cabecar, number names of 882 

— .numbers of 931 

Cache, for wild rice 1071-1072 

Cactus clan, see Uct). 

Cadillac, on Menomini 1107 

Cahita, number names of 867,922,928 

— method of counting _ 879 

— numbers above ten 908 



1141 

Page 

Cahuillo, formation of number names 

in 879 

— , number names of 868,876 

— , numbers of 929 

Cakchiquel method of forming num- 
bers above ten 899-901 

— , number names of 862, 863 

Cakwabaiyaki, siteof old Piba pueblo.. 601 
CakwaieSya, religious society at 
Walpi, source of 623 

— altar, same as Blue Flute altar 989 

— , at Mishongnovi, described 991-992 

— society, personnel of 996 

Calako taka, masks of, reference to. . . 612 
"Calendar round" symbol, discov- 
ery concerning, by Goodman 712 

Calendar rounds, Mayan, working 

tables of S18 

— , systems of, of different Central Ameri- 
can tribes shown to be identical 806-812 

— , Mayan _. 693-819 

— , object of study of 700-701 

California Pauite, numbers of 923-929 

Campbell, John P., on wild rice in 

Georgia 1029 

Canada, wild rice in 1037 

Canoe, birch-bark, used in wild rice har- 
vest 1056-1070 

Canyon de Chelly, home of Asa clan.. 010 

Capote Ute, number names of 870,929 

Cardinal points, importance of, in 

Snake ceremonies 972, 974 

— , recognition of, in Flute ceremonies. 1003, 1004 

Carey, on synonym for Menomini 1048 

Carib method of forming numerals ... . 914 
Carniff, William, on wild rice in Lake 

Huron 1037 

— , on use of wild rice by whites in On- 
tario 1101 

Car reri, Gemelli, on Mexican calendar 

system 935 

Carrizo, numerals of 919 

Carte Particuliere du Fleuve Saint 

Louis, on synonym for Menomini 1048 

Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours 

du Mississipi, on location of Maskotin. 1053 
Carus, Paul, on Chinese mythic num- 
bers 847 

Carver, Jonathan, on Dakota curing 

wild rice 1065 

— , on Dakota property-right in wild rice. 1073 

— , on Dakota storing wild rice 1072, 1088 

— ,on Dakota tying wild rice 1058-1059 

— , on duck in Wisconsin 1034, 109S 

— ,on future value of wild rice to whites- 1101 

— , on location of Sauk 1051 

— ,on Minnesota river. ._ 1035 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1116 

— , on Dakota thrashing wild rice by tread- 
ing or rubbing 1069 

— ,on time Dakota first possessed horses. 1044 

— , on wild-rice feast 1092 

— , on wild rice in Fox river 1034 

CastanedA, on location of Tusayan 598 

Caterpillars, destruction of wild rice 
by 1027,1100 



INDEX 



1142 

Page 

Catlix. George, on Dakota gathering 

wild rice _ 1062 

— , wild rice harvesting illustration, refer- 
ence to. 1057 

Cedar-bark bags, for storing wild rice. 1072 
Celedon, Rafael, on Carib numerals. . . 914 
Central, America, ruins of, inscriptions 

of 806 

Ceremonial days, of the Flute rite at 

Mishongnovi 988-993 

Chamberlain. Alexander F., on Mis- 
sissagua thrashing wild rice by flailing. 1069 

— , on Mississagua wild-rice foods 1083 

— , on Mississagua gathering wild rice . . . 1063 
— , on Mississagua curing wild rice . . . 1065, 1066 
— , on threshing wild rice in deer-skin 

lined hole. 1068 

Chanabal method of forming numbers 

above ten 906 

— , number names of 86£' 

Charencey, La Comte de, on Aztec 

number names . _ _ 878-879 

— , on Chiapanecan number names 874 

— , on Cbichimecan word four 87G 

— , on formation of Mayan number names. 865 

— , on Tzotzii number names. 863 

— , on Mame numerals 903-901 

— , on Mixtec number names. 872 

— , on Opata and Cahita number names.. 867 

— , on Othomi number names 873 

— , on Qu'iche' number names 864 

— , on Quekhi numerals 901-902 

— , on Son oran number names 868 

— . on Shoshone number names 869,870 

— , on Tarahumari numbers 923 

Charlevoix, P. de, on Menomini 1107 

— , on Menomini use of wild rice 1048 

— , on nature of Green bay area .... 1112 

Chavero, Alfredo, on Mexican and 

Hindu counting.. S75-876 

— , on Nalmatlan counting S78 

Chemehuevi, number names of 870 

876. 923. 929 

Chiapaxec, number names of 874. S78 

Chiapas, ruins of, inscriptions of. 806 

Chibcha method of forming numbers .. 918 
Chicago Tribune, wild rice harvesting 

illustration, published in 1057 

Chilax Balam, book of, on value of 

ahaus in Maya calendar system 717 

Chippewa, see Ojibwa. 

Chippeway river, wild rice in 1034 

Chocha, or Chuchon, number names of. 872 
Choco (Panama) method of forming 

numbers _. 917 

Chol. number names of 862 

— method of forming numbers above 

ten 906 

Chontal, number names of 862 

Chronology, Mayan, Goodman's sys- 
tem of 792-800 

Chdchox or Chocha. number names of. 872, 930 
Chuen symbol, discovery concerning, by 

Goodman 711 

Chuhe method of forming numbers 

above ten 905 

— , number names of 863,880 



[eth. ANN. 19 
Page 

Chumayel, Chronicle of, on value of ahau 

in Maya calendar system 717 

Churchill, Ownsham, on Mexican cal- 
endar system 935 

Cibola, city of 650 

Cimo, Hopi chief, on advent of clans at 

Walpi ._ 585 

Cipactli, Aztecan mythic animal, sym- 
bolizing the earth 684 

Ci pi as, mention of 598 

Cities, stations, etc., named from wild 

rice— 1117-1118 

Civilization, influence of protection of, 

on Pueblo architecture 642 

Ciwanu, Hopi clan, reference to 583 

Clans, influence of, on Pueblo architec- 
ture 646-648 

— , determination of. 651-652 

— , of "Walpi and Sichumovi. 582-584 

— worship, germs of, in Snake and Flute 

societies 1006 

Claviceps purpurea, destructive to 

wild rice. 1027 

Claviceps sp., destructive to wild rice . 1027 
Clavigero. Francisco Javier, on Ma- 
yan feast days at opening of century .. 675 

— , on Mexican calendar system 935 

— , on Mexican division of year 955 

— , on Mexican method of counting 920 

— . on Nahuatl method of counting large 

numbers... 884 

Clinton, G. P., on wild rice in Illinois... 1029 

Cloud clan same as Okuwafl clan 615, 621 

— , see Patki clan. 

Codices, numeral symbols in 812-819 

Collins, J. Franklin, on wild rice in 

Rhode Island 1032 

Colors employed in Santa Rita wall 

painting 669-670 

Comanche, influence of, on Pueblo archi- 
tecture 641 

— , number names of S70.929 

Computation, methods of number 932-933 

Conant, L. Li., on Australian counting... 877 

— , on Australian number concepts 833.837 

— , on Cahuillo number names.. 868 

— , on Cora number names 867 

— , on geographic extent of vigesimal 

system 924,925 

— , on Mosquito number names 881 

— , on origin and spread of vigesimal sys- 
tem 926 

— , on Othomian number names 873 

— , on primitive counting 875 

— , on Totonaca numerals 911 

— , on Tschukschi numerals 913 

Connecticut Board of Agriculture 
and Experiment Station, report of, 
on composition of cereals and fruits ... 1081- 

1082 

Consumption of wild rice 10S0-10S8 

Coos, amounts of wild rice harvested by . 1076 

— , standard of life of 1079 

Copan. inscriptions of 776-788 

— , initial series of 801-806 

Copway. George. on duck in Ontario ... 1098 
Cora, meaning of number names of 878 



INDEX 



ETH. ANN. 19] 



INDEX 



1143 



Page 

CORA, number names of 867, 930 

Cordova, P. Ph. Juan de, on Zapotec 

counting by moons. 954 

— , on Zapotec numerals 872, 887 

Corn, of Antelope altar 968 

— , of Macilenya altar 989 

— , at Mishongnovi Cakwalenya altar 992 

— , prominent in Flute ceremony 1005 

— clan, same as Kolon clan 615-618 

— kernelmosaic, at Mishongnovi altar. 993 

— [maize], chemical composition of 1081 

— , green sweet, chemical composition of. . 1081 

— meal, at Hopi altars- 983,991,992,999,1001, 1003 

— , chemical composition of 1081 

— , importance of, in Antelope and Snake 

dance 1 974,975,976 

— , stack (shock) of, at Walpi Flute altar. 1001 

Coronado at Cibola — 650 

— , expedition of 598 

— , on location of Tucano 599 

Cortesian codices, cited 817 

COTOKiNUNwft, statuette of, at Oraibi 

Flute altar 993 

Cotton's ranch , same as Pueblo Ganado 60-1 

— , site of old Wukopakabi.- 614 

Cotjes, Dr Elliott, on description of 

wild-rice plant 1026 

— , reference to translation of Diario 599 

— , (Ed.), on dependence of fur traders 

on wild rice 1101-1102 

— , (Ed.), on influence of wild rice on geo- 
graphic nomenclature. 1122, 1123,1124 

— , (Ed. ) , on dependence of Northwest Fur 

Company on wild rice 1103 

— , (Ed.), on "Fols Avoin Sauteurs" 1042 

— , (Ed.), on popular synonym for wild 

rice 1024 

— , (Ed.), on sections of country named 

from wild rice 1116 

— , (Ed.), on time of year when Dakota 

consume wild rice 1087 

— , (Ed.), on popular synonym for wild 

rice - 7 1023 

— , (Ed.), on wild rice in North Dakota _. 1031 
Coulter, John M., on wild rice in Texas. 1032 
Counting, analogy of, between animals 

and tribesmen 833-834 

— and number systems, primitive 833-843 

COYOTA CLAN, See ISAUft CLAN. 

Cram, T. J., on influence of wild rice on 

geographic nomenclature 1120 

Crane clan, see Atoko clan. 

— , with the Patun clan _ 595 

Cranberries, chemical composition of.. 1081 
Crandall, C. S., on introduction of wild 

rice into Colorado 1029 

Cree or Kinisteno, relations of. with 

Saulteaux 1040 

Creeks, amounts of wild rice harvested 

by 1076 

— , standard of life of . _ 1079 

Creeks and Rivers named from wild 

rice 1118-1124 

Crooks, at Walpi Snake dance 982-983 

Cross, Foliated, Tablet of the. 733-761, 765-771 
— , initial series of , inscriptions of 800 



Cuculcan, see Quetzalcoatl. 

Cult of the Halves 843-847 

Cult of the Quarters. 845-846,948-950 

Cuna (Panama) method of forming num- 
bers 917 

Curing or drying wild rice 1064-1066 

— , mechanical means employed in 1066 

— , reasons for 1064 

Curr, E. M. , on Australian number con- 
cepts :. 833-834 

— , on Australian counting 877 

Currie Bros., on present sale of wild 

rice to whites in Wisconsin . 1105 

Cushing, F. H., on Pueblo number 

figures 840 

— , on quinary system 850 

— , on Zuni cardinal points, colors for 835 

— , on Zuni numeration 838 

Cycle op years, meaning of term 705 

— symbol for, discovery concerning, by 
Goodman 712 

Cycles, Mayan, working table of , 819 

Cyclopedia; or a new universal dic- 
tionary op arts and sciences, on 

popular synonym for wild rice 1022 

— , on wild rice planted in England 1037 

Dablon, Claude, on duck in Green bay. 1099 
— , on nature of Green bay area as Indian 

habitat , 1112 

— , on wild rice eaten with grease by 

Maskotin 1085 

Dakota, earliest historic references to. . 1043 

— , population of 1108,1109,1110 

— , tribal history, migrations, and settle- 
ment... 1043-1047 

— and Ojibwa warfare _ 1038-1042 

— , last war of, to retain wild-rice fields. . 1041 
— , wild rice gathered by 1061,1062 

— tie wild rice 1058 

— , amounts of wild rice harvested by 1076 

— cure wild rice 1064, 1065 

— thrash wild rice by treading and rub- 
bing .— . 1069 

— store wild rice 1073 

— , wild rice consumed by 1083 

— , population of, consuming wild rice... 1045, 

1047, 1057 

— , time of year when they consume wild 

rice — 1087 

— , meal time of 1087 

— , peculiar wild- rice feast of 1092 

— , standard of life of 1079 

— property-right in wild rice 1073 

— , wild-rice moons of 1090 

Darlington, William, on early use of 

Word "Zizania" --- 1021 

Davis, Jefferson, on wild rice in vicin- 
ity of Madison, Wisconsin 1036 

Davy, J. Burt, on absence of wild rice 

in California . 1029 

Day, Mayan, symbols of 713-714 

Days of the Mayan "four series of 

years" 702-703 

— , Mayan, method of counting. 707 

Decimal system, employed by the So- 
noran and Shoshonean peoples 922 



1144 

Page 

Decimal- vigesimal system, employed 

by Othomian, Tarascan, Totonacan, and 

Huastecan peoples ._ 922 

Deer clan, see SowinC clan. 

Delawares, population of 1108,1109,1110 

Detroit Gazette, on wild rice as bien- 
nial plant 1025 

De Vaugondy, on synonym for Menom- 

ini Indians - 1048 

Diario, quotation of Garces from 599 

Diaz, Captain Melchior, on location of 

Totonteac. .._ 599 

Dickson, Robert, on dependence of fur 

traders on wild rice _ 1103 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Diesseldorf, on monster's bead from 

Quirigua 674 

— , on painting of Cuculcan G78-679 

Dietrich und Konig, on composition of 

wild rice 1081 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Direction-sense, in primitive men and 

animals 846-847 

Division of labor between sexes, in 

wild-rice industry 1066 

Doc Coll. Hist. New York, on Menoni- 

ini population. 1049 

Doc. of House of Rep., on Menomini 

use of wild rice _ 1049 

Dodge, Governor, on Menomini use 

of wild rice __ 1049 

Doll et Aschers, on scientific synonym 

for wild rice 1021 

Dominical days 705-706 

Dorasque (Panama) method of forming 

numbers 917 

Dorsey, James Owen, on popular syno- 
nym for wild rice. 1023 

Doty, Governor, on dependence of fur 

traders on wild rice 1103 

— , on dependence of fur trade on wild 

rico 1104 

— , on Ojibwa eating wild rice seasoned 

with rabbit feces 1084 

Dove clan, see Htlwu. 

Drab Flute (Macilenya) altar, at 

Michongnovi 1 939 

Dragon's head, effigy of, in Santa Rita 

mound 689 

Dresden codex, cited 715-732, 

757, 758, 793, 794, 797, 799, 
805,806,808,813, 814, 815 

— , dominical days of 705 

Duck, the mythic part played by, in 

bringing wild rice to the Ojibwa 1094 

— , importance of, as gleaners of wasted 

wild rice 1098-1099 

East mesa, of Hopi country, reference to. 579 

— , rituals at 631-633 

EGOISM of primitive thought 8)30-833 

Eleventh Census of the United 

States: Indians, on Ojibwa tying wild 

rice 1058 

— , on wild-rice harvest feasts 1091 

Ellet, Mrs Elizabeth Fries, on wild 

rice in Wisconsin 1034 

— , on use of wild rice by early settlers .. 1104 



[ETH. ANN. 19 

Page 

Ellis, Albert G. , on duck in "Wisconsin . 1098 

— , on Menomini tying wild rice 1058 

— , on Menomini gathering wild rice.. 1062, 1063 

— , on Menomini thrashing wild rice 1067 

— , on winnowing wild rice . 1070 

— , on Menomini wild-rice broth 1083 

— , on Menomini property-right in wild 

rice 1073 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Ely, Prof. Richard T., acknowledg- 
ments to _ 1019 

English language, influence of, on geo- 
graphic nomenclature 1115 

Entyloma crastophilum, destructive 

to wild rice . _ 1027 

Eototo, clan, and mythic personage of. . 605 
Eskimo method of constructing num- 
bers 928 

Evans, A. Grant, on absence of wild rice 

in Indian Territory 1030 

Evans, Alex. W., on wild rice in Con- 
necticut 1029 

Faith, influence of, on Indian economic 

life 1019,1093 

Families, Hopi, determination of 651-652 

Farmer, John, on influence of wild rice 

on geographic nomenclature 1120.1122 

Fear, influence of, in primitive number 

concept ... 843-844 

Feathekstonhaugh, George Wil- 
liam, on wild rice in Delaware 1029 

— , on wild rice at Fort Winnebago 1034 

— , on birds destructive to wild rice 1027 

— , on influence of wild rice on geo- 
graphic nomenclature ... 1120 

— , on duck in Minnesota river 1098 

Features, unusual, of Walpi Snake 

dance 97S-979 

Fejervary codex, numerals from .... 939-943 
Fernold, M. L., on wild rice in Maine, 

and Massachusetts ... 1030 

Fewkes, Dn Jesse Walter, Tusayan 

Flute and Snake ceremonies, by... 957.1011 
— , Tusayan migration traditions, by... 573-633 
Figurines, use of, in Snake and Flute 

rites 1010-1011 

— , of Flute youth, and maiden on altar: 

see a'.so Piiukoii 9S9-990. 993, 995 

Firearms, influence of, on Ojibwa war- 
fare 1040, 1044 

Firewood clan, s-e Kokop clan. 
Fish, painting of, on wall in Santa Rita 

mound 667 

— , effigy of, in Santa Rita mound 683 

Flint, Chas. L., on Zizania miliacea ... 1022 
Flint, Timothy, on importance and 

extensiveness of wild rice crop 1101 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on tying wild rice.. 1058 

— , on wild rice as pudding 1U84 

Floods, see Water. 

Flora Cesthica, on wild rice in Penn- 
sylvania 1032 

Flute altars, at Walpi, description of . 1001- 

1002 

— boys, description and function of 997- 

99S.999 



INDEX 



ETH. ANN. 19] 



INDEX 



1145 



Page 

Flute ceremony, at Mishongnovi in 

18B8 987-1000 

— , at Oraibi, memoir on 987 

— , pueblos where performed 987 

— , public, at Shipaulovi 996-1000 

— , at Walpi in 1896 1000-1005 

— chiefs, description of 997 

— , clan, see Lenya clan. 

— , and Flute society, relationship of . 1007-1008 

— girls, description and function of .. 997,999 

— (Lenya) society, census of 627 

— maiden, figurine of 989-990,993,995 

— observance, prominent elements in . 1005 

— rites, interpretation of 1009-1011 

— rooms, at Mishongnovi 988 

— , at Walpi 1000-1001 

— SONGS, at Walpi 1002-1003 

— youth, figurine of 989-990, 993, 995 

Foliated Cross, Tablet of the, initial 

series of , inscriptions of 801 

Folle avoine, use of term, see also 
Menomini 1024 

— COUNTRY... 1042 

Food, influence of, on primitive thought- 1089 

— , on increase of population 1109-1110 

Formosa, wild rice in 1037 

FOrstemann, Dr E. reference to discov- 
eries by 818 

— , on Dresden codex 799,805 

— , on Mayan division of solar year 954-955 

— , on Mayan methods of computation . 932-933 

— , on Mayan "old year" 748 

— , on Mayan time units 715-716 

— , on Mayan years 806 

— , on methods of counting Mayan time 

symbols - 723,724,725,729 

— , reference to 699.708 

— , on time series of Dresden codex 709-710 

Forsyth, Thomas, on use of wild rice by 

Sauk :.. 1051 

Fort Defiance, home of Hano clans 614 

Fort Wingate, site of old Kipo 614 

Fox, see Indians in wild rice district 1050 

— , see Sauk and Fox. 

— , tribal names, and meaning of same ... 1050 

— (Mechecouquis), population of, in 1764. 1108 

— , population of 1109, 1110 

— , wild-rice villages of, destroyed by 

Ojibwa 1040 

Fox river, wild rice in 1033 

French language, influence of, on geo- 
graphic nomenclature . . 1115 

Frosts, destructive to wild rice 1027, 1100 

Fuertes, E. A., on Zoquean number 

names 873 

— , on Zoque numerals 907 

Fur traders, dependence of, on wild 

rice 1101-1104 

Gaitchaim, numbers of 869-929 

Gallatin, Albert, on number names 

from San Antonio, Texas 881 

Gama, Antonio, on Mayan calendar 

periods 675 

Gann, Thomas, mounds in northern 

Honduras, by 655-692 

Garces, Fray Francisco, cited on 

Moqui(Hopi) 598 

— , on location of Moqui (Hopi) 599 



Page 

Gathering wild rice, mechanical 

means employed in 1064 

Gatschet, Dr Albert S., on AkaPman 

number names _ 874 

— , on Kauvuya number names 868 

— , on Shoshone number names 869,870 

— , on Shoshonean numerals 923 

Geographic nomenclature, influence 

of wild rice on 1115-1126 

Gheen, Stephen, on amounts of wild 

rice harvested 1077 

— , on failure of wild rice crop 1099 

— , on Ojibwa storing wild rice in cedar- 
bark bags 1072 

— , on birch-bark winnowing fan 1071 

Gibbs, quinary- vigesimal system in Cali- 
fornia 924 

Gilfillan, J. A., on present use of wild 

rice by whites in Minnesota.. 1105 

Gillen, F. J., on Australian intermarry- 
ing groups 836 

Goodman, J. T., on Copan Inscriptions . . 776- 
777, 778, 779, 780-783, 784, 785, 78 6, 787, 788 

— , chronolgical calendar of 759 

— , copy and interpretation of inscrip- 
tions from Temple of Inscriptions 771-775 

— , on the "grand era" in Mayan chronol- 
ogy. 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800 

— , on importance of Ahau and Mayan 

time counts 816 

— , on initial series of various Mayan in- 
scriptions 800-806 

— , on interpreting Mayan time symbols. 760 
— , interpretation of dates on Foliated 

Cross, by.. 765-771 

— , on interpretations of Tablet of the 

Cross 740-743, 744, 746-747, 748 

— , on Ivlayan chronology 792-793 

— , on Mayan day names 808-811,812 

— , on Mayan directive signs 751 

— , on Mayan methods of computation. 932-933 

— , on Mayan reckoning 728 

— , on Ma yan symbols 791 

— , on Mayan time series 710 

— , on Mayan time symbols 711-714 

— , on method of Mayan time reckon- 
ing 732 

— , on names for Mayan time units 715-720 

— , on names for Mayan time periods 723, 

724, 725, 726 

— , on numeral systems in the codices 814 

— , references to 699, 

700, 701, 704, 705, 706, 708, 737, 738 

— , on Tablet of the Sun. 761, 762-763, 765 

— , system of Mayan chronology by 792-800 

— , on Tablet of the Cross 733-736 

— , theory of, applied to reading Piedras 

Negras inscriptions 788-791 

— , on time symbols of the Tablet of the 

Cross 749,750,751 

Gourds, at Antelope altar 968-969 

Grasserie, Raoul de la, on Mixe nu- 
merals above ten 906 

— , on Zoquean number names 873 

Green bay, wild rice in 1033 

— area, nature of, as Indian habitat.. 1111-1112 
— , Indians and condition of, in. 1112-1113 



1146 

Page 

Gronovious, on scientific synonym for 

wild rice 1021 

Gordon, Haxford Lenox, on Dakota 

use of wild rice 1057 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1132 

— , on meaning of Dakota words 1061 

— , on Ojibwa wild-rice moons 1090 

Gtjardia, R. F., on Ckibchan number 

names 8S2 

— , on Totonacan number names 871 

— , on Tzotzil number names 863 

Guaymi (Veraguas) method of forming . 

numbers 916 

Guaymi Sabanero (Panama) method of 

forming numbers 916 

Guajiquiro (Honduras) method of 

forming numbers 915 

Hahawe, Hopi chief, on advent of clans 

at Walpi 585 

Hai' it, number names of 871 

Hale, Horatio, on early home of Siouan 

stock 1043 

Halves, Cult of the 843-847 

Hani', Hopi Tobacco clan chief, reference 

to. 579 

Hano, location of, in Hopi country 579 

— clans, advent of, at Walpi 585 

— , descendants of Tewa clans 614 

— , migrations, and census of 614-622 

— , names, and location of 615-616 

— pueblo, origin, language, and culture 

of .' 633 

— , Piba chief in Walpi 601 

— ritual 632-633 

Harmon, Daniel, on dependence of 

Northwest Fur Company on wild rice.. 1103 

— , on Ojibwa gathering wild rice 1062 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Harshberger, Prof. John W., on rea- 
sons for study of ethno-botany 1028 

Hatco, on Hano migrations 614 

Havasupai basket, contains paho, at 

Walpi Snake altar _ 983 

Hebberd, Stephen Southrick, on na- 
ture of Green bay area 1111 

— , on Indian population at Green bay in 

1670 1106-1107 

Hedin, Sven, on magical number sixty- 
one 849 

Henderson, Alexander, on Maya nu- 
merals 897 

— , ou Maya numeral system 891,893,894 

Henderson, L. F., on absence of wild rice 

in Idaho 1029 

Hennepin, Louis, on Dakota tying wild 

rice 1058 

— , on wild rice as Indian food 1084,1085 

— , on wild rice in Minnesota 1034 

— on duck in Mille Lacs 1099 

Henry, Alexander, on dependence of 

fur traders on wild rice 1101-1102 

— , on Indians saving wild rice until the 

next harvest 1088 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1022 

— , on use of maple sugar as food 1095 



[eth. ANN. 19 
Page 

Henry, Alexander, on influence of wild 

rice on geographic nomenclature 1122 

Hewitt, J. N. B.,on Shahaptian numera- 
tion 838 

Hind, Henry Youle, on wild rice in 

Winnipeg system 1035 

— , on dependence of Indian on wild rice. 1100 
— , on wild rice eaten with blue berries.. 1083 

— , on birds destructive to wild rice 1027 

— , on wild rice destroyed by caterpillars. 1100 

— , on drowning of wildrice.. 1099 

Hitchcock, A. S., on absence of wild rice 

in Kansas 1030 

Hodge, F. W., on city of Cibola. 650 

Hoffman, Dr Walter J., on Menomini 

origin of Winnebago tribal name 1052 

— , on organization of Menomini tribe 1091 

— , Menomini synonymy of, reference to . . 1048 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1119 

— , on Menomini gathering wild rice 1062 

— , on Menomini curing wild rice 1066 

— , on Menomini thrashing wild rice 1068 

— , on Menomini winnowing wild rice with 

birch-bark fan 1071 

— , on Menomini storing wild rice in cedar- 
bark bags 1072 

— , on Menomini eating wild rice with 

maple sugar 1085 

Hokona-mana (Butterfly-vigin slab) at 

Walpi Snake altar 983 

Holmes, Prof. W.H., reference to 699 

Homolobi, date of removal of clans 

from 598-603 

— ,site of old Patki pueblo 597 

Honani (Badger) clan, advent of, at 
Walpi 585-586 

— migrations, and census of 606-607 

— group, component clans of 584 

— women stolen, and divided between 
Mastcomo. Mishongnovi, and Walpi 606 

Honau (Bear) clan, advent of, at 

Walpi 585-586 

— , early history and census of 604 

— group, component clans of 584 

HoNAUPABi.same as Kipo. 614 

Honduras, bas-reliefs at 672 

Hon yi. Flute speaker chief, at Walpi. 1001-1004 

— , prominent Antelope priest 977 

Hopi Calako, said to have come from 

Winima 612 

Hopi, not descended wholly from north- 
ern nomads 633 

— ceremonies, time of performing 963 

—.purpose of 963 

— communities, modern causes for con- 
centration of 577 

— migrations, legends concerning 57S 

— .influence of early Spaniards on 581-582 

— PUEBLOS 579-582 

—.number names of S70.930 

— ritual, Christian influence on 936 

—.growth of 578 

Hare clan, see Sowi clan. 

Horn clan, see Ala clan. 



INDEX 



ETH. ANN. 19] 

Page 

Horn-Flute clan, see Ala-Eenya 
clan. 

Horse, influence of, on modern Dakota 

migrations 1044 

Hough, Dr Walter, witnessed Snake 

dance at Mishongnovi 964 

House Executive Document, Third 
Session, Fifty-third Congress, on 
failure of wild-rice fields in Minnesota. 1114 
—.Twentieth Congress, Second Ses- 
sion, on population in wild-rice district 

in 1829 1111 

— Miscellaneous Document 36, Thir- 
tieth Congress, Second Session, on 
importance of wild rice to the Indian.. 1097 
House op Representati ves, documents 
of, cited on popular synonyms for wild 

rice . 1023 

House steps, initial series of, inscrip- 
tions of _ _ 801 

Howard, Dr L. O., on Lissorhoptrus sim- 
plex 102" 

Howard, O., on absence of wild rice in 

Utah 1032 

Huasteca, number names of 862, 863 

Huave method of forming numbers 918 

Huchnom method of forming numbers-. 912 
Hudson Bay Company, dependence of, 

on aboriginal production 1104 

Huitzilopochli, Mexican god of death, 
painting of, on wall in Santa Rita 

mound 669 

Human skeleton, in Santa Rita mound 688 
— figures, effigies of, in Santa Rita 

mounds 683,684,685 

Hunter, John Dunn, on time of Indian 

meals 1087 

— , on use of wild-rice gruel by Indians . . 1086 
— , on wild rice between Mississippi river 

and Rocky Mountains in United States . 1032 
Huron, see Indians in wild-rice district . 1055 
Hutchinson, John, on Ojibwa gather- 

. ing wild rice 1063 

— , on Ojibwa curing wild rice 1064-1065 

Huwi clan, relations of, with Tciia 

clan _ 588-590 

Idols, in mounds at Santa Rita ... 678-685 

Images, stone, of animals in Walpi Snake 

dance 980, 982 

Indian, dependence of, on wild rice. 1095-1101 
Indian Affairs Report, on present 

civilization of Winnebago 1052 

— , on Menomini population 1049 

— , on Menomini eating wild rice with 

maple sugar 1085 

— , on wild rice stored in Wisconsin 1072 

— , on wild rice in Minnesota river. . . 1034, 1035 
— , on dependence of Indian on wild rice. 1096, 
1097-1098, 1100, 1101 
— , on time of year Indians consume wild 

rice 1087 

— , on amounts of wild rice harvested 1075, 

1076, 1077 

— , on drowning of wild rice 1099 

— , on Indian standard of life 1079 

on dependence of white man on wild 
rice 1104 



1147 

Page 

Industries, primitive, egoism reflected 

in: 832 

Inscriptions, Copan 776-788 

— , at Piedras Negras 788-791 

— , Temple of 771-775 

— , initial series of, inscriptions of 801 

Intiwa, Hopi chief, on advent of clans at 

Walpi 585 

Iowa Indians, population of, in 1823 1110 

Iroquois, Ojibwa name for 1039 

— , influence of, on westward migration 
of Siouan stock 1043 

— and Ojibwa warfare 1039 

Irwin, Major, quoted, through Jedidiali 

Morse, on Menomini use of wild rice. 1048-1049 
Isauu, Coyote clan, advent of, at Walpi. . 5S5 
Isba Spring, Hano pueblo near, on East 

mesa 610,615 

Ixil, number names of 862 

— method of forming numbers above 

ten 904-905 

Ixtlilxochitl, on early migrations of 

Toltec 676 

JACALTECA method of forming numbers 

above ten 905 

— , number names of 863 

JAHRESBERICHT UBER DIE FORT- 
SCHRITTE DER AGRI KULTURCHEMIE, 

on popular synonym for wild rice 1024 

James, George Wharton, acknowledg- 
ment to 980 

Japan, wild rice in 1037 

Jemez, home of Hano clans 014 

— pueblo, home of Kokop clan ._ 604 

Jenks, Dr Albert Ernest, wild rice 

gatherers of the upper lakes, by ... 1013-1137 
Jessup, Henry O, on wild rice in New 

Hampshire 1031 

Jesuits, as chroniclers of Indian data 1113 

Jettipehika, site of old Patki pueblo .. 597 
Jewish Encyclopedia, on meaning of 

Cabala 826 

Jicaque de Yoro (Honduras) method 

of forming numbers 915 

— del Palmar (Honduras) method of 
forming numbers 915 

Ji vi ros, number names of 877 

Jones, L.R.,on wild rice in Vermont... 1032 
Jones, Marcus E., on wild rice in Ne- 
braska 1031 

Jones, Peter., on Ojibwa gathering 

wild rice 1063 

— ,on thrashing wild rice by treading 1068 

— , on birch-bark winnowing fan 1071 

Josoge, foundation of 011 

Jupiltepeque, number names of 881 

Jutiapa, numbers of 881,931 

Kaetiba, borne of Asa clan 610 

Kakapti, Antelope priest, description 

of »85 

K'ak'chi, methods of forming numbers 

above ten 901-903 

Kalektaka, name of warrior society 

among Pakab clans 609 

— , religious society at Walpi, source of. 6213, 030 
Kalakwai, Hopi clan chief, reference 

to 579 



INDEX 



1148 

Page 

Kapo pueblo, speaks same language as 

Hano clans 614 

Karankawa, number names of 877 

Kaskaskia, population of.in 1764 1108 

KATcr, Antelope priest, description of... 984 
Katct, Kokop chief, on original home of 

Kokop --- 604 

Katctna, or Anwuci clan, migrations 
and census of 607, 608 

— clan, advent of, at Walpi 585 

— , census of. _ 620-622 

— . migration of _ . - - - 606 

— , cults from New Mexican pueblos at 

"Walpi. unique origin of 630-631 

— group, component clans of 584 

— society, source and census of _ 623 

Katcinaba. home of Katcina clan 607 

Katun, Mayan, working table of 819 

— symbol, discovery concerning, by 
Goodman 712 

Kauvuya, formation of number names in 879 

—.number names of 868,876,879,923,929 

Kawaika, home of Asa clan r 610 

Keams Canyon, site of old Puflci 614 

— , same as Punei 604 

Keating, William, on influence of wild 

rice on geographic nomenclature 1122 

— , on wild rice in water system of Red 

River of the Nor th 1035 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Keche, number names of . 869,870 

— (San Luis), numbers of 929 

— (San Diego), numbers of. 930 

Kecht, formation of number names in.. 879, 

895-899 

Ke clan, census of 618,622 

Kele clan, with the Patun clan 595 

Kellerman, W. E., on wild rice in Ohio. 1031 

Kern River Peoples, numbers of 929 

KlCKAPOO, tribal history, migrations. 

and settlement of 1055 

— , population of 1108.1110' 

— , in wild-rice district 1107 

— , amounts of wild rice harvested by . . . 1075 

— , standard of life of 1079 

Kicu, home of Katcina clan 607 

Ku or Kizh, number names of 870 

— , numbers of , 950 

Kingsbo rough, Robert, on Mendoza 

codex 945-947 

— , cn Vatican codex - 947-948 

Kinisteno, see Cree. 
Kinship organization, egoism re- 
flected in 831 

Kinzie, Mrs John H., on birch-bark 

winnow ing fan - 1071 

Kipo, home of Hano clans 614 

Kisakobi, second site of Walpi pueblo... 580 
Kisi, description and origin of 973,1005 

— (brush house), for containing the rep- 
tiles used in Snake dance 973,977 

Kisi wi, Ala clan at 590 

Kiva, cause for building 644 

— , comparative antiquity of circular and 

rectangular - 988 

— , at Mishongnovi 966 

Kizh, see Ku. 



[ETH. ANN. 19 

Page 

Knowledge, growth of, essentials to ._ 826-828 
Kohl, Johann Georg, on influence of 
wild rice on geographic nomenclature. 1116 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on wild rice in southern part of Lake 

Superior 1034 

— , on wild rice in Lake Huron 1037 

Kokop (Firewood) clan, former homes, 

migrations, and census of 604-606 

— , ad vent of , at Walpi 585-586 

— Group, component clans of 584 

KOLON CLAN, census of 617-618,622 

Konkau, number names of 871 

Kopeli, Snake clan chief, reference to .. 579 

— , at Walpi 975 

Kotka, Honau chief 604 

Krautbauer, F. X., on synonym for 

Menomini Indians 1048 

KfKttTc (Lizard) clan, advent of, at 

Walpi 585 

KOkutc clan, member of Patki group, 

mention of 596 

KOkOtc-Tuwa, Lizard-Sand clan, ad- 
vent of, at Walpi 585 

Kunchalpi, probable original home of 

Patki clans 597 

Kwaa. Antelope priest, description of.. 984-985 

Kwactapabi, Ala-Lenya clan at 591 

KwAKWANTr, a society of Patki clan 595 

— , religious society at Walpi, source and 

census of 623, 629 

Kwavajjompi, religious society from, at 

Walpi - 623 

Kwavonampi, home of Pakab clans 608 

Kwinapa, site of old Patki pueblo 597 

Labphak, bas-reliefs at 672 

Lac Courte Oreille, first permanent 

O j ibwa settlement at 1041 

Lac du Flambeau, first permanent Ojib- 

wa settlement at 1041 

Laguna, same as Kawaika. 

Laguna, Juan Bautista de, on Tarasco 

numerals 909 

La Harpe, Bernard de, on Le Sueur 
building fort to effect treaty between 

Dakota and Ojibwa 1039 

— , on Dakota storing wild rice in home- 
made sacks 1072 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice 1046 

— , on Dakota villages -.- 1047 

— , on Dakota eating wild rice ._ --- 1085 

Lake, E. R., on absence of wild rice in 

Oregon. - -. 1031 

Lake op the Woods, wild rice in 1035 

Lakes, named from wild rice 111S-1124 

LalakontO, religious society at Walpi, 

source and census of 623,629 

Lamson-Scribner, F., on popular syno- 
nym for wild rice 1023,1024 

— , on Oryzopsis exigua 1022 

— , scientific determination of wild rice.. 1021 
— , wild rice in District of Columbia, also 

m Delaware river 1029 

Landa, on symbols in codices 670-671 

— , on use of ahau 717-718 

Language, primitive, egoism reflected 
in.. S31-832 



INDEX 



ETH. ANN. 19] 

Page 

Lang lots, A. B., on wild rice in Loui- 
siana 1030 

Laphasi, I. A., on influence of wild rice 

on geographic nomenclature 1120,1121 

Lawe. George, on Menomini eating wild 

rice with maple sugar 1085 

Lean y Mulia, number names of 882 

— , numbers of 882,931 

Lexya clan, possible advent of, into 

Tusayan 626 

— , mythic origin of 590 

Lenyanobi, founding of 586 

— , Ala clan at _ 590 

Leon, Nicholas, on Tarasco numerals. . 909 
— , on Tarascan and Chiapanecan number 

names 874 

— , on Zapotecan number names 872 

Le Sueur, on Dakota eating wild rice... 1085 

— , on peace between Dakota and Ojibwa. 1041 

— , on Dakota storing wild rice in sacks. . 1072 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice 1046 

Lettres Edifiantes, on separation of 

Assiniboin from their Siouan kinsmen. 1054 
Lewis and Clarke, on Dakota posses- 
sion of horses 1044 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1122 

Lightning symbols, at Mishongnovi 

Cakwalenya altar 992 

— , at Mishongnovi Flute altar 990 

— , at Oraibi altar 993 

— . at Shipaulovi altar 995 

Link, on scientific synonym for wild rice. 1021 
Linxeus, herbarium of, on scientific syn- 
onym for wild rice 1021 

Lissorhoptrus simplex, destructive to 

wild rice 1027 

Little Colorado, river, Hopi clans 

from 582-583 

— , pueblos from 594-603 

— , pueblos, religious societies from, at 

Walpi 623 

Lizard clan, see KOkOtc clan. 
Lloyd, map, 1862, on influence of wild rice 

on geographic nomenclature 1118 

Lock wood, James H., on Dakota wild- 
rice thanksgiving feast 1091 

Lokotaaka, Ala clan at 590 

Long John, on popular synonym for 

wild rice 1023 

— , on wild-rice baby food. 1086 

— , on Dakota wild-rice moons 1090 

— , on wild-rice death feast of Potawa- 

tomi 1091-1092 

— , on dependence of fur traders on wild 

rice 1102 

— , on synonym for Menomini Indians 1048 

— , on wild rice north of Lake Superior.. 1037 

Lookout mounds, at Santa Rita 685-686 

Lokillard City, bas-reliefs at 672 

Lumholtz, Carl, on Australian ternary 

concept 837 

Lyttle, Robert T., map of, 1837, on influ- 
ence of wild rice on geographic nomen- 
clature 1117 



1149 

Page 

McBain, Samuel, on absence of wild rice 

in Tennessee 1032 

McCarty, Gerald, on wild rice in North 

Carolina ._ 1031 

MacCauley, H. Clay, on wild rice in 

Florida 1029 

Macfarlane, John R., on wild rice in 

Pennsylvania 1031-1032 

McGee, Prof. W J, acknowledgments to. 1020 

— , on beginnings of agriculture 1056 

— , on beginnings of mathematics. . . 874-875, 877 

— , on California number names 871 

— , on Cult of the Quarters 948-949 

— , on Maya method of computation 933 

— , on origin of Assiniboin tribe 1054 

— , on influence of bison on migration of 

Sionan stock 1043 

— , on relation between barefoot and san- 
dal-wearing people and the vigesimal 

system 925 

— , primitive numbers, by 821-851 

Mac Kay, A. H., on wild rice in New 

Brunswick and Newfoundland 1037 

McKenney, Thomas L., on birds de- 
structive to wild rice 1(127 

— , on drowning of wild rice 1099, 1100 

Mackenzie, Alexander, on wild rice 

northwest of Lake Superior 1035 

Macloskie, G., on wild rice in New Jer- 
sey 1031 

MacMillan, Conway, on wild rice in 

Winnipeg system 1035 

McNeill, Jerome, on absence of wild 

rice in Arkansas. 1029 

Macilenya, religious society at Walpi, 
source of 623 

— altar, same as Drab Flute altar.. . . 989 

— society, personnel of 996-997 

Maize, see Corn. 

Maler, Teobert, inscriptions discov- 
ered at Piedras Negras by, cited 788 

Mallery, Garrick, on time Dakota 
first possessed horses 1044-1045 

Make, number names of 862-804 

— formation of numbers above ten 903-904 

Mamzrautu, religous society at Walpi, 

source and census of 623, 030 

Ma'nabush, the mythic personage who 
first gave wild rice to the Menom- 
ini 1092-1093 



Manitoba Hist, and Sci. Soc, on in- 
fluence of wild rice on geographic no- 
menclature 1121 

Mano'mIn, etymology of the word .. — 1024 

Maple sugar, as food 1084-1085,1095 

Maricopa, number names of 871 

Marquette, Pere, on popular synonym 

for wild rice 1025 

— , on wild rice in Fox river 1033 

— , on location of Assiniboin, and their use 

of wild rice 1055 

— , on curing wild rice 1065 

— , on thrashing wild rice 1068 

— , on wild rice eaten with grease 1084 

— , on Dakota property-right in wild rice. 1073 



INDEX 



19 eth, PT 2—01 38 



1150 



INDEX 



[ETH. ANN. 19 



Page 

Martin, chief of Ottawa, on importance 

of wild rice to Indian 1096 

Masaiumtiwa, Hopi chief, on advent of 

clans at W alpi 585 

Masauu, tutelary god of Sekyatki; also 

clan, overthrow of, by Hanau clan 604 

Maskotin, see Indians in wild-rice dis- 
trict 1053 

— , in wild-rice district 1107 

— , tribal names, history, migration, and 

settlement 1053-1054 

— , population of, in 1764 1108 

— , on wild rice eaten with grease 1085 

Mason, Dr Otis T., acknowledgments to. 1020 
Mathews, C. W., on wild rice in Ken- 
tucky 1030 

Matlaltzincan, or Pirinda, number 

names of 873 

Matsumura, Prof. J., on identity of 

Zizania aquatica in Japan 1021, 1037 

— , on popular synonyms for wild rice in 

Japan, China, and Formosa. 1024 

— , on Ustilago esculenta 1027 

Maudslay, A. P., reference to Biologia 

Centrali-Americana 700 

— , reference to drawing of Tablet of the 

Cross 754 

— , drawing of Copan inscriptions by, 

cited 804,805 

— , on inscriptions from Copan 728 

— , on inscriptions of the Quirigua 743 

— , on Mayan year _ 748 

— , reference to 699, 711 

— , photograph of Foliated Cross by, cited . 765 
— , photograph of Copan inscriptions by, 

cited 776, 777, 778, 785, 795, 803 

— , photograph of inscriptions from Tem- 
ple of the Sun by, cited 732 

— , photograph of Sun Tablet by, cited . . 761 
— , photograph of Temple of Inscriptions 

by, cited 771,774 

— , on interpretation of Sun Tablet 739 

— , on reading Maya glyphs 708 

— , on reading of Piedras Negras inscrip- 
tions according to Goodman's theory. 788-791 
May. L. L. & Co., on present sale of wild 

rice to whites 1105 

Maya, or Toltec, builders of mound- 
covered temples at Santa Rita 670-673 

Maya days, list of 807 

Mayan calendar systems 693-819 

Mayan number names, formation of... 862, 
863, 880, 890-894 

Mazateca method of counting. .. 879 

— method of forming numbers above 

ten 872,888-890,930 

Mealtime, among Indians 1086-1088 

Mechecouquis, sec- Fox. 

Medicine bowl and aspergill, in Walpi 

Snake dance 983 

Mell, P. H., on wild rice in Alabama 1028 

Membreno, Alberto, on the Honduras 

Chorti number names 863 

— , on Moreno and Sumo numerals 914 

— , on Similaton numerals 916 

— , on Sumo, Paya, Jicaque, and Guaji- 

quiro numerals 915 



Mendoza, on location of Totonteac 599 

— codex, numbers from 939,945-947 

Menomini, see Indians in wild-rice dis- 
trict 1047 

— , meaning of tribal name 1048 

— , synonymy of tribal name. _ 1048 

— , influence of wild rice on tribal organi- 
zation of 1090-1093 

— , first historic mention of 1047 

— , early description of _._ 1107 

— , population of. 1049,1108,1109,1110 

— tie wild rice _ 1058 

— , wild rice gathered by 1062. 1063 

— eat wild rice : 1083,1085 

— cure wild rice... 1066 

— , wild-rice thrashing stick 1068 

— winnow wild rice 1071 

— , amounts of wild rice harvested by . 1075-1077 
— , dependence of, on wild rice 1047-1049 

— thrash wild rice 1068, 1069 

— , mealtime of 1087 

— , property-right in wild rice 1073 

— , standard of life of _ 1079 

— , time of year when they consume wild 

rice 1087 

— river, wild rice in 1033 

Merrell, Henry, on popular synonym 

for wild rice _ 1023 

Mexican years, and days in calendar 

order 936-938 

Miami, population of 1108,1109,1110 

Michaux, on scientific synonym for wild 

rice ..i - 1021 

Michoacan, or Tarascan, number names 874 
Middle mesa of Hopi country, reference 

to 579 

— Snake dance, most primitive form .. 986 
Migration, character of Pueblo... 644.645,648 
— , PrjEBLO, influence of water supply 

on - - 645-646 

Mije, or Mixe, number names of 873 

Mille Lacs, wild rice in 1035 

Millerton, members of 930 

Mindelefp, Cosmos, localization of Tu- 

sayan clans, by 635-653 

— , on snake dance at Mishongnovi 973 

— , on kivas at Mishongnovi 966 

— published Snake dance in 1886 965 

Mindelefp, Victor, on antiquity of kiva 

forms 988 

— , on kivas at Mishongnovi 966 

— . architectures, study of Tusayan, ref- 
erence to - 579 

Minnesota Historical Collections, 
on influence of wild rice on geographic- 
nomenclature 1123 

Minnesota river (St Peters), wild rice 

in --- 1035 

Mishononovi Antelope altar 966-969 

— , Flute ceremony at, in 1896 987-1000 

— , founded by the Patufi clan 626 

— , location of, in Hopi country 579 

— , old, pueblo of Patufi clan 595 

— , Snake dance at, in 1897 946-976 

Mississagua cure wild rice 1065, 1066 

— thrash wild rice by flailing- 1069 

— eat wild rice 1081 



ETH. ANN. 19] 

Page 

Mississippi river, head waters of , wild 
rice in 1034 

Mitchell, S. Augustus, on influence of 
wild rice on geographic nomenclature. 1117, 

1120, 1123 

Mitchell, John, on influence of wild 

rice on geographic nomenclature 1120, 

1121, 1122 

Ml' WUK, number names of... 871 

Mixe method of forming numbers above 

ten 906 

— , numbers of 930 

Mixtec. numbers of 872,930 

Mocock (birch-bark box), for carrying, 

containing, and storing wild rice 1080 

Mohawk, population of, in 1822 1110 

Mohoce, mention of... 598 

Moisture-tablet, bearer of, description 

of. 998 

Moll, Herman, map of, locating Kicka- 

poo _ 1055 

Momtcita, ceremony of Pakab clans 608 

MoSpa, Ala clan at 590 

Month, Mayan, symbols of -.. 714 

Months of Mayan " four series of 

years " 702-703 

Moon, the wild-rice, origin of... 1089-1090 

Mooney, James, on cause of Siouan mi- 
grations . 1043 

Moons, or months, origin of Indian names 

for _ 1089 

Moore, C. W., on present use of wild rice 

by whites 1105 

Moqui Pueblo, number names of 876 

Moreno (Honduras) method of forming 

numbers 914 

Morris, on mystical numbers 835 

Morse, Dr Jedidiah, on early conquest 

of Sauk and Fox territory by Menomini. 1050 
— , on Oneida and Stockbridge Indians. .. 1111 

— , on Winnebago population. 1053 

— , on Menomini population 1049 

— , on influence of nourishing food on in- 
crease of population 1109-1110 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1116,1121,1123 

— , on absence of wild rice immediately 

south of Lake Superior 1034 

— , on destruction of wild rice by storms. 1100 
— , on dependence of fur traders on wild 

rice 1103, 1104 

— , on Menomini thrashing wild rice 1068 

Mosquito, numbers of 877,881,931 

Motzfeldt, J., on amounts of wild rice 

harvested by Ojibwa 1074 

Mounds of Santa Rita, classification 

of 662-663 

— , characteristics of 663-665 

— , paintings on the walls of 665-670 

Mountain-sheep clan, mention of 596 

Mudheads, same asTatcuktu 631 

Muiobi (Rio Grande Valley), Hopi clans 

from 582,584 

--clans from 604-613 

MClYlNWfi, "flower mound" of 990 

Muller, on Totonacan number names .. 874 



1151 

Page 

j Munsee, population of 1109, 1110 

Mysticism of primitive thought 829-a30 

Nagranda method of forming numbers 

above ten _ 912 

Nahuatl or Aztec method of forming 

numerals above ten ... 882-885 

Nahuatl. numbers of 866,867,878.922,928 

Naiuche, Zuiii Bow chief 609 

Nakum, number names of 871 

Nambe, pueblo of, speaks same language » 

as Hano clans (314 

Names tor Places, Indian method of 

assigning ._ ... 1115 

Nan clan, census of _. 620,622 

Nasyunweve, Hopi chief, on advent of 

clans at Walpi 585 

Natacka, masks of, reference to ... 612 

Navaho, influence of, on Pueblo archi- 
tecture 642-643 

Neill, Edward Dupfield, on Stephen 

Brule as first white man to visit Ojibwa. 1059 
— , on Ojibwa eating human flesh with 

wild rice 1084 

— , on Dakota villages 1045 

— , on cause of Dakota migration from 

wild-rice fields 1044 

— , on Dakota wild-rice moon 1090 

— , on Dakota tying wild rice 1058 

— , on Dakota curing wild rice 1064 

— , on Dakota thrashing wild rice ... 1068 

— , on Dakota eating wild rice 1083 

— , on Dakota storing wild rice 1072 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature _ 1123 

Nelson, Aven, on absence of wild rice 

in Wyoming 1032 

Newberry, J. S., on wild rice in Lake 

Huron 1037 

New Brunswick, wild rice in 1037 

Newcombe, P. O, on wild rice in Michi- 
gan i 1030 

Newfoundland, wild rice in 1037 

New Mexico, Hopi clans from 582,584 

— , pueblos of. clans from 604-613 

New York Colonial Documents, on 

popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Nicollet, Sieur Jean, on discovery of 

Menomini, and their use of wild rice. . . 1048 
Niel, on migrations of Tanoan people. . . 611 

Nishinam, number names of 871 

Niza, Friar, on Cibola. 650 

Northwest Fur Company, dependence 

of, on wild rice 1103 

Notation and augmentation.--... .. 839-843 
NOcaki, Spanish mission house at old 

Walpi 580 

Number-concept, germs of 843-847 

Numbers, in Mexican codices 934-948 

— , integral, primitive symbols of, extra- 
natural potencies 842-843 

— , mythic and ceremonial use of 948-955 

— , place of, in growth of knowledge ... 825-828 

— , primary 859-882 

— , primitive . 821-851 

— , law of augmentation in 839-843 

— systems, and counting, primitive 833-643 



INDEX 



1152 

Page 

Numeral systems, in the codices 812-819 

— , of Mexico and Central America 853-955 

Numeration 833-839 

Nutrition of wild rice 1080-1083 

— , importance of, in primitive sociology.. 1089 
Nuttall, on popular synonym for wild 

rice - 1032 

Nuttall, Miss Zelia, on Mexican cal- 
endar system 935 

Oats, chemical composition of 1082 

Ojibwa, see Indians in wild-rice district. 1038 
— , tribal history, migrations, and settle- 
ments of 1039-1042 

— , population of 1042, 1108, 1109, 1110 

— , Dakota name for 1040 

— and Dakota warfare 1038-1042 

— and Fox warfare 1040 

— and Iroquois warfare 1039 

— , date when they entered wild-rice 

fields of Wisconsin 1040 

— , traditional manner of first obtaining 

wild rice 1093-1095 

— , wild rice gathered by 1062, 1063 

— (Rat Portage band I sow wild rice 1057 

— (Rice Lake band) sow wild rice 1057 

— (Lac Courte Oreille band 1 sow wild 
rice 1057 

— (Lac Courte Oreille band) tie wild 
rice 1059-1061 

— cure wild rice 1065, 1066 

— (Moose-ear river band) cure wild 
rice 1064-1065 

— Fond du Lac band) cure wild rice 1064 

— thrash wild rice 1067 

— winnow wild rice 1070,1071 

— store wild rice in cedar-bark bags 1072 

— eat wild rice with blueberries 1083, 1084 

— eat wild rice in Mide' society lodge, in 
war-dance circle, etc 1085-1086 

— , time of year when they consume wild 

rice 1087, 1088 

— , amounts of wild rice harvested by. 1074-1078 
— , standard of life of 1079 

— property-right in wild rice 1073 

— , wild-rice moon of 1089 

Ojo Caliente, Pueblo village of, typical 

of method of building up 644 

Okuwan clan, census of 621-622 

Olney, wild rice harvesting illustration, 

reference to 1057 

Onate, Juan de, reference to early visit 

of, to Mohoce 598 

Opata method of counting 879 

— method of forming numbers above 

ten 1 911 

— , number names of _. 867,878.922,929 

Ophiolatry, in the Snake dance 1008-1009 

Oppel, Charles C, on present use of 

wild rice by whites 1105 

Oraibi, home of Honani clans 606 

— , location and settlement of, in Hopi 

country 579-580 

Oraibi flute altar, comparison with, 

of Mishongnovi flute altar 993-994 

Oraibi Snake dance, most primitive 

form 986 

— , in 1896 984 



[ETH. ANN. 19 

Page 

O k ke', pueblo oT, speaks same language 
as Hano clans 614 

O k pinp'o. home of Hano clan 614 

Oshkosh, Menomini chief, reference 
to 1049 

Othomi, formation of number words in. 879 

— method of forming numbers above ten. 873, 

!ii I9 ; 931 

Ottawa, see Indians in wild-rice district. 1055 

— , origin of tribe, meaning of name 1039 

— , tribal history, migrations, and settle- 
ment 1055 

— , population of, in 1822 1108. 1110 

— , wild rice gathered by 1063 

— tie wild rice 1059 

— thrash wild rice 1068 

— store wild rice in mococks 1072 

— , wild-rice moon of 1089 

Ouachtenons, see Wea. 

Paddock, L. A., on wild rice in Illinois .. 1029 

— , wild rice in Grass lake, Illinois 1026 

— , on Potawatomi thrashing wild rice ... 1070 

— , on Potawatomi eating wild rice 1083 

Paho (prayer stick), at Walpi Snake 

altar ; 983 

— , at Mishongnovi Cakwalefiya altar 992 

Paiute, California, number names of.. 869.876 

— , Southern, number names of 8B9.876 

Pakab Reed clan, advent of, at Walpi . 585 
Pakab clans, migrations and census 

of 606-610 

— group, component clans of 584 

Pakatcomo, pueblo of Patki clan 626 

— , site of old Patki pueblo 597 

Palatkwabi (southern Arizona), Hopi 

clans from 582-583 

— , mythic original home of Patki clans .. 597 

— , clans from 594-603 

— , religious societies from, at Walpi 623 

— , religious societies from. 626-630 

Palenque, bas-reliefs at 672 

— , Inscriptions at 732-775 

— , initial series of 800-801 

Palmer, Edward, on Dakotacuring wild 

rice. 1065 

— , on Dakota thrashing wild rice 1068 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

PALtiLtfKON, the Great Snake, in Patki 

myths ... 597 

Panquichas, see Piankishaw. 

PanwO clan, mention of 596 

Papago, quatern concept among 834-835 

Participants, number of, in Walpi 

Snake dance 979 

Paskin', Ojibwa traditionist 1057-1058 

Patki clans 596-603 

— , advent of. into Tusayan 626 

— , census of 599-601 

— , migrations of 596-597 

Patki (cloud) clan, advent of, at 

Walpi 585 

—, original home of 596 

— and Walpi relations 597 

— group. component claus of 583 

Patne, in Antelope altar 968 

Patterson', Roger, reference to, on 

drowning of wild rice 1099 



INDEX 



ETH. ANN. 19] 



INDEX 



1153 



Page 

Patterson, Roger, on destruction of 

wild rice by storms . - 1100 

— , on Ojibwa tying wild rice 1059 

— , on Ojibwa gathering wild rice 1063 

— , on Ojibwa curing wild rice 1060 

— , on Ojibwa thrashing wild rice. 1068,1069,1070 

— , on winnowing wild rice _ 1070 

— , on amounts of wild rice harvested 1077 

— . on reliability of wild rice crop 1099 

Patun clan, advent of, into Tusayan . . _" 626 

— , migrations of, in ceremonials 595-596 

— , original home and migrations of 595-596 

— group, component clans of 583 

PatuS-Piba-Patki societies 627-630 

Patun (Squash) clan, advent of, at 

Walpi 585 

Pautiwa, Hopi Eagle clan chief, refer- 
ence to 579,608 

Pavant, number names of .. 869 

Pawikpa, same as 0>~pinp'o 614 

Paya (Honduras) method of forming 

numbers _ 915 

Peabody Museum, reference to 699 

— , on Mayan inscriptions in 700 

PEAH,amountsof wild rice harvested by. 1076 

Peah Ute, standard of life of 1079 

Peoria (Pianria), population of 1108,1110 

Perez, D. Juan Pio, on formation of 

Mayan number names 866 

— , quoted by Brinton on Mayan numer- 
als 891,892,894 

— , quoted by Goodman on Copan inscrip- 
tions 784 

Perrault, Jean Baptiste, on impor- 
tance of wild rice to fur traders 1102 

Perrot, Nicolas, on Assiniboin use of 

wild rice 1055 

— , on Assiniboin sowing wild rice 1057 

— , on Dakota occupancy of wild-rice 

country 1045-1016 

— , on Kickapoo and Maskotin 1107 

Peten, number names of . 862 

Peters, Ed., on composition of wild 

rice 1080-1082 

Phalon, Peter, on reliability of wild- 
rice crop 1099 

— , on Ojibwa gathering wild rice 1062 

— , on thrashing wild rice 1069 

— . on winnowing wild rice 1070 

— , on amounts of wild rice harvested 1077 

Phratry, influence of, on Pueblo archi- 
tecture 651 

Piankishaw (Panquichas), population 

of, in 1764 1108 

Pianria, see Peoria. 

Piba clan, original and subsequent 

homes of 601 

Piba-Tabo, Tobacco-Rabbit clan, ad- 
vent of, at Walpi 585 

— , advent of, in Tusayan 626 

— , census of 602-603 

— , member of Patki group 596 

Pickering, Charles, on wild rice in 

Florida; also in Arkansas 1029 

Piedras Negras, inscriptions at 788-791 

Pigeon-Hawk clan, with the Patun clan 595 
— , see Kele clan. 



Page 

Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, on Indian 

population in 1806 1 109 

— , on population of Sauk and Fox 1051 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice. 1023, 1024 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice. 1046 

— , on time of year when Dakota consume 

wild rice , 1087 

— , on dependence of Northwest Fur Com- 
pany on wild rice 1103 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1123.1124 

Pima, number names of 868,929 

Pimentel, Conde de Heras Francisco, 

on Opata numerals 911 

Pinart, A. L., on Dorasque, Cuna, and 

Choco numerals ._ 917 

— , on Guaymi and Guaymi Sabanero nu- 
merals _ 916 

— , on Quekchi number names 864, 901-903 

Pine clan, same as Teniik clan 615, 619 

Pipil, numbers of 867,928 

Pirinda, or Matlaltzincan, number 

names of 873, 879-880, 931 

Pither, Robert J. N., on birds destruc- 
tive to wild rice 102? 

— , on drowning of wild rice 1099 

— , on sowing of wild rice by Rat Portage 

Ojibwa 1057 

— , on thanksgiving observance before 

wild-rice harvest 1091 

— , on Ojibwa gathering wild rice 1063 

— , on amounts of wild rice harvested 1075 

— , on Ojibwa curing wild rice 1065, 1066 

— , on Ojibwa storing wild rice in cedar- 
bark bags 1072 

Platt, Albrecht, on influence of wild 

rice on geographic nomenclature 1122 

Pokagon, Chief Simon, on wild rice in 

Potawatomi mythology 1091 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on Potawatomi gathering wild 

rice 1062,1063 

— , on Potawatomi thrashing wild rice in 

special bag 1069 

— , on Potawatomi use of birch-bark 

mococks 1072 

— , on failure of wild- rice crop... 1095, 1099, 1100 

— , on Potawatomi mealtime 1087 

— , on Potawatomi property-right in wild 

rice 1073 

— , on Potawatomi wild-rice moon 1089 

Pokomam, formation of number names 

in 862.880 

Pokonchi, formation of number names 

in 862,880,901 

Po'kwoide, pueblo of, speaks same lan- 
guage as Hano clans 614 

Pontima, Antelope priest, description 

of 984-985 

Pope, John, on influence of wild rice on 

geographic nomenclature 1123 

Popoloca, numbers of 872,930 

Population, of Indians in the wild-rice 

district -. 1106-1114 

— , of all wild-rice consuming Indians . . . 1055 
Pouter, Thomas C, on wild rice in 
Pennsylvania 1032 



1154 



INDEX 



[ETH. ANN. 19 



Posonwu, pueblo of, speaks same lan- 
guage as Hano clans 614 

Potawatomi, see Indians in wild-rice dis- 
trict - - 1053 

— , origin of tribe 1039 

— , meaning of tribal name, history, mi- 
grations, and settlement 1039, 1053 

— , population of 1108, 1109, 1110 

— , population of, consuming wild rice... 1053 
— , wild rice gathered by 1062,1063 

— thrash wild rice 1069-1070 

— store wild rice in birch-bark boxes 1072 

— eat wild rice 1083 

— , wild-rice death feast of 1091-1092 

— , property-right of, in wild rice 1073 

— , wild-rice moon of 1089 

Pottery, ancient, historic value of testi- 
mony of . . . - . 604 

— urns, in mounds at Santa Rita 678-685 

Powell, Major J. W., on California 

number names 871 

— , on Huchnom numerals 912 

— , on law of activital similarities 827 

— , American linguistic stocks of, cited .. 932 

— , on mystical numbers. 835 

— , on word Nahuatl 866 

Powers, Stephen, on California num- 
ber names 871 

— , on geographic extent of quinary- 
vigesimal system 924 

Poyi, on advent of clans at Walpi 585 

Primitive numbers, by W J McGee .. 821-851 
Primitive people, importance of imme- 
diate study of 1056 

Production of wild rice 1056-1079 

Property- right in wild rice 1072-1073 

Provancher, Abbe L., on popular syn- 
onym for wild rice 1023 

Psin, meaning of . 1025 

Pueblo architecture, influence of ag- 
riculture on - 640,642 

— , influence of war raids on 641 

— , Hopi 579-582 

— region, ancient' extent of 639 

— ruins, cause of distribution of 639-640 

— , Sanado, home of Kokop clan 604 

Puma clan, associated with Snake-Ante- 
lope societies at Walpi . _ 624 

Punci, home of Kokop clan 604 

— , home of Hano clans 614 

Pupuluca, number names of 863,873,931 

Putce, Hopi Horn and Flute clan chief, 

reference to 579 

POOkon, wooden image of 966 

P«ukonhoya, Hopi war god 589 

Quaternary concept, among primitive 

people 834-835 

Quarternary-quinary system, among 

primitive people 848,850 

Quarters, Cult of 834,845-846 

Quetzalcoatl (Mexican god of air), 
painting of, on wall in Santa Rita 

mound i 665,668.673,676 

Quevedo, A. Lafone, on Tabo numera- 
tion - 838 

Qu'lCHE, number names of 862,864 

Quiche-Cakchiquel days, list of 807 



Page 

Quinary system of numbers 875-880 

Quinary-vigesimal system, employed 

by Nahuatlan, Zapotecan, Mazatecan, 

Trikean. Mixean, and Zoquean peoples. 921 

— , geographic extent or 924 

— , illustrations of 882-890 

Qutncunial concept, among primitive 

people _ 835-836 

QuiRTGUA, inscriptions of 743 

— , monster's head from 674 

Rabbit clan, see Tabo clan. 
Radisson, Peter Esprit, on synonym 

for Menomini Indians 1048 

— , on Menomini use of wild rice 1048 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice 1046 

— , on Dakota gathering wild rice 1061 

— , on Dakota eating wild rice 1083 

— , time of year Dakota consume wild 

rice 1087 

— , on location of Huron Indians in Wis- 
consin _. 1055 

Rain, prominent in Piute ceremony 1005 

Rain clan, member of Patki group 596 

— symbol, made of kernels of corn 993-994 

— , of Macilenya altar 989 

— , at Mishongnovi CakwaleSya altar 992 

— , at Mishongnovi Flute altar 991 

Rain-cloud clan, associated with Piba 

clan 601 

Rain clouds, depicted on Walpi Snake 

altar ... 983 

Rama method of forming numbers 918 

Ramirez, Jose Fernando, on Nahoas 

counting 876 

Rau, Dr Charles, on Palenque Tablet. 733 
— , reference to restoration of Tablet of 

the Sun, by. 739 

Red Cedar river, wild rice in 1034 

Red River of the North, system of, 

wild rice in 1035 

Reed clan, see Pakab clan. 
Relations des Jesuites, on location of 

Winnebago 1052 

— , on location of Potawatomi 1053 

— , on duck at Green bay.. 1099 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice. 1046 

— , on Ottawa tying wild rice 1059 

— , on Ottawa gathering wild rice 1063 

— , on Ottawa thrashing wild rice 1068 

— , on Ottawa storing wild rice in birch- 
bark boxes 1072 

— , on Maskotin eating wild rice 10S5 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on Indian population in wild-rice dis- 1 

trict HOr 

Religious societies, from Tokonabi. 624-625 

— , from Palatkwabi. 626 630 

— , at Walpi 622- 4i30 

Reredos, of Cakwalefiya altar 991-992 

— , of Macileiiya altar 998 

— , at Shipaulo vi altar 995 

Reservoirs, underground rock-hewn. at 

Santa Rita 691-692 

Rice, cleaned, chemical composiLion of. 1082 
Richardson, John, on destruction of 

wild rice by caterpillars 1100 



ETH. ANN. 19] 

Page 

Riggs, Stephen Return, on meaning of 

Dakota words - 1061 

Right-handedness, among primitive 

people 845-846 

Rituals, of East mesa 631-633 

— , Hopi, growth of ■. 578 

— , of Hano 632-633 

— , of Sichumovi. . . 632 

— , of Walpi 631-632 

Rivers, names of, influence of wild rice 

on 1118-1124 

Rodman, Capt. N. D., on Ojibwa tying 

wild rice 1058 

— , on winnowing wild rice. 1070 

— , on amounts of wild rice harvested 1077 

— , on drowning of wild rice 1099 

Rolfs, P. H., on wild rice in Florida 1029 

Rosny, Leon de, on Maya numerals .. 891,892 
— , photograph of bas-relief de Bernoulli 

by, cited 775 

Roth, H. Ling, on Tasmanian number 

concepts" 833 

Roth. W. E.. on Australian binary con- 
cept 846 

— , on Australian numeration 834 

R jyce, C. C, on forced migrations of 

Winnebago 1052 

Ruins ob* Arizona, architectural char- 
acteristics of ancient 577 

Ru.msey, W. E., on absence of wild rice in 

West Virginia 1032 

Russia, wild rice in 1037 

Rye, chemical composition of 1082 

Salmeron, Marcos, on Mame numer- 
als 903-904 

— , on Mame number names . . 864 

San Antonio, Texas, number names 

■ from 881 

Sa clan, census of 617,622 

Sand mounds at altars, see also MttiYiS- 
Wfi 990,991 

— pictures at Hopi altars 966, 968, 982, 995 

— clan, same as Nan clan 615, 616, 620 

— , see TOwa clan. 

Santa Rita (Honduras), mounds at 661 

Santo Domingo, same as Tukwi. 
Sauk, see Indians in wild-rice district. .. 1050 
— , tribal names for, and meaning of same. 1050 
— , population of 1108,1109,1110 

— and Fox, coalition of tribes, history 

and migrations 1050-1051 

— , population of, consuming wild rice... 1051 

Sateneja, mounds at 690-691 

Saunders, D. W., on wild rice in South 

Dakota... 1032 

Saulteaux, origin and migrations 

of _ 1039-1040 

Sayre, Lucius E., on Claviceps pur- 
purea 1027 

Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, on the 

cause of Maskotin migration 1054 

— , on meaning of Winnebago tril ial name . 

1051-1052 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice. 1022, 1023 

— , on wild rice in Minnesota river 1055 

— , on wild rice in Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota 1034 



1155 

Page 

Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, on influ- 
ence of wild rice on geographic nomen- 
clature . 1 116, 1117, 1120, 1123 

— , on "folle avoine country" 1042 

— , wild rice harvesting illustrations, 

reference to 1057 

— , on Indian population in 1778... 1109 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice _ 1016-1047 

— , on Dakota mealtime 1087 

— , on Menomini use of wild rice 1049 

— , on migrations from wild-rice district. 1111 

— , on Ojibwa tying wild rice 1058 

— , on storing wild rice in bags. .. 1072 

— , on wild rice thrashing holes in Wis- 
consin 1067 

— , on value of wild-rice district to In- 
dians 1038 

— , on wild rice as Indian food 1084 

— , on property-right in wild rice 1073 

— ,on Ojibwa wild-rice moon 1089 

— , on dependence of fur trade on wild 

rice 1102,1104 

— , on birds destructive to wild rice 1027 

Science, modern, stepping-stones to .. 825,826 
Scott, Prof. Wm. A., acknowledg- 
ments to.. 1019 

Sections of Country, named from wild 

rice 1116 

Seler, Dr Ed., on Dresden codex _ 799 

— , on early Central American day names 808 
— , on importance of Ahau and Mayan 

time counts .. 816 

— , on Mayan year of 360 days 748 

Selkirk, Lord, on wild rice in water 

system of Red River of the North 1035 

Seminole, amounts of wild rice har- 
vested by 1075-1076 

Senary concept, among primitive 

people 835,836 

Senary-Septenary system, among 

primitive people 842,848 

Seneca, population of, in 1822 1110 

— .amounts of wild rice harvested by 1075 

Serpent, effigy of, in Santa Rita mound. 689 

— head, painting of, on wall in Santa 
Rita mound 667 

Seton-Thompson, Ernest, on tragic 

death of animals 843 

Seymour, E. S., on wild rice in Lake of 

the Woods 1035 

— , on Ojibwa tying wild rice... 1059 

— , on Ojibwa gathering wild rice 1062 

— , on Ojibwa curing wild rice 1065 

— , on Ojibwa thrashing wild rice 1067 

— , on use of birch-bark winnowing fans. . 1071 

Shawnee, population of.. 1108,1109,1110 

Shea, John Gilmary, on migrations of 

the Huron 1055 

— , on curing wild rice 1065 

— ,on thrashing wild rice — 1068 

— , on wild rice eaten with grease 1084 

— , on Dakota eating wild rice 1085 

Shimek, B., on wild rice in Iowa 1030 

Shipaulovi, location and settlement of, 

in Hopi country — 579-580 

— flute altars, comparison of, with 

I those of Mishongnovi 994-996 



INDEX 



i 



1156 



INDEX 



[ETH. ANN. 19 



Page 

Shipaulovi, Snake dance at, in 1896, 

reference to 964 

Shoshoneax method of counting 879 

— , numbers of. 868-870, 876, 878, 939 

Shuxopovi, location of,m Hopi country. 579 
— , Snake dance of, in 1896, reference to. 964 

Sibabi, site of old Patki pueblo 597 

Siberia, wild rice in 1037 

Sichumovi, component clans of 582-584 

— , detached houses in. 649-650 

— , founded by Asa women 611 

— , location and settlement of, in Hopi 

country 579-580 

— , population of, by clans 614 

— pueblo, language and culture of 633 

— ritual 632 

Sikyabotima, Flute courier at Walpi... 

1001-1004 

SikyahonauwCt, man of Tiiwa clan 596 

Sikyaowatcomo, rocky eminence near 

old Hano pueblo 615 

Sikyatki, founding of 586 

— pottery, value of testimony of 604 

— pueblo, destruction of 580 

Siletz Agency Indians, standard of 

life of 1079 

Simeon, Remi, on Nahuatl number 

names - 866,883 

Similaton (Honduras) method of form- 
ing numbers 916 

Sinacantan, numbers of 881,931 

Sioki, home of Asa clan 610 

Siouan language, influence of, on geo- 
graphic nomenclature ... 1115 

— stock, plains Indians 1043-1044 

Sioux, meaning of name 1039 

Skin bags, for storing wild rice 1072 

Smith, John, on popular synonym for 

wild rice 1022 

— , on wild rice planted at Lincolnshire. . 1037 

Snake altar, characteristics of 966 

Snake-antelope societies, original 

composition and development of 624-625 

Snake clan, see TcOa clan. 

— , prominence of, in Snake dance 965 

— and Snake society, relationship of . 1006-1007 

— dance, duration of 964 

— , meaning of.. 1008 

— , at Hishongnovi, in 1897 964-976 

— , at Walpi, in 1897 976-985 

— , the most primitive form of 986 

Snake and flute rites, gods in 1009-1011 

— , needs of worshiper in 1009-1011 

Snake-hunting implements 970 

Snake people, in Tusayan.. 652 

— priests, same as Tciiwimpkia 623-624 

— , functions of "carrier," "hugger,"and 

"gatherer" 975 

— .parts played by, in Antelope and Snake 
dance 975-976 

— rites, interpretation of 1009-1011 

— SOCIETY kiva, at Mishongnovi 966 

— , census of 625 

— YOUTH AND WOMAN 1008 

— washing, motive for 973 

— whips, in Snake ceremonies 969,972,975 

Snakes, ceremony <>f washing 970-973 



Page 

Snakes for Snake dance, collection of . . . 965 

— , how carried by Snake priests 975-976 

Snow people, in Tusayan 652 

Sobaipuri, tribe of, Apache raid on 598 

Songs, Flute, at Walpi _ 1002-1003 

Sonoran, number names of 867-868 

Sorrow-making clan, see Tubic clan. 

Southern Paiute, numbers of 923.929 

Sowi clan, associated with Piba clan . . . 601 

Sowing wild rice 1057 

— , early Ojibwa traditions of. 1057-1058 

Soyaluna, or Winter-solstice ceremony. 596 
Spaniards, influence of, on removal of 

old Walpi __ 580-581 

— , where they first found Walpi 580 

Spanish padres, influence of, on Hopi. 581-582 
Spencer, Herbert F., on Australian in- 
termarrying groups 836 

Spittle, meaning of ejecting, at Snake 

dance - 976 

Springs, importance of, in Hopi-settle- 

ment ceremonials. 592 

Squash clan, see Patun clan. 
Squier, Ephriam George, on Nagranda 

numerals 912 

St Croix river, wild rice in 1034 

St Louis (Minnesota) river system, 

wild rice in 1035 

Standard bearers, description of 998 

Standard of life, of Indian tribes. 1078-1079 

Stephen, A. M., acknowledgment to 987 

— , on advent of clans at Walpi 585 

— , on determination of Hopi clans 651 

— , reference to 578 

— , on traditions revealing early Hopi con- 
ditions 648 

— , on migrations of Pakab clans 608 

Stephens, John L., on bas-reliefs at 

Labphak 672 

— , on bas-reliefs at Palenque 673 

— , on rock-hewn reservoirs at Uxmal 692 

Stevenson Mrs Matilda Coxe, mem- 
oir of , referred to 971 

— , reference to... 982 

Stickney, Gardner P., wild rice har- 
vesting illustration, published by 10-57 

— , acknowledgments to 1105 

Stoll, Dr Otto, on Aguacateca and other 

numerals above ten 905 

— , on Cakchikel numerals 899 

— , cited on Cakchiquel language by Good- 
man - 809 

— , on formation of Mayan number 

names - 865 

— , on Huastica numeral system S94 

— , on Ixil numerals 904-905 

— , on Mame number names 864 

— , on old and new Mayan numeral sys- 
tems 891 

— . on names of numbers in Mayan dia- 
lects 861-863 

— , on Pi pil number names 867 

— , on Pokonchi numerals 901 

— , on Tzotzil and other numerals 906 

— , on Zoquean number names.. 873 

Storing wild rice 1071-10T2 

— , mechanical means employed in H'72 



ETH. ANN. 19] 



INDEX 



1157 



Page 

Storing wild rice, reasons for 1071-1072 

Storms, destructive to wild rice 1027,1100 

Strawberries, chemical composition of 1081 
Stuart, Robert, on dependence of fur 

trade on aboriginal production 1104 

Stuntz, A. C, on tying wild rice 1058 

— , ou Ojibwa curing wild rice 1066 

— , on thrashing wild rice by treading 1068 

Sturgeon, chemical composition of 1081 

Subina, number names of 863 

Suffixes, use of, in Mayan number 

names 864-865 

Sullivan, Jeremiah, reference to 609 

Sumaikolis, Cult, and priests of 631 

Sumo (Honduras) method of forming 

numbers 914-915 

— (Nicaragua) method of forming numer- 
als -.- 915 

Sun, prominent in Flute ceremony 1005 

Sun emblem, bearer of, description of-. 998 

Sun, Tablet of the _ 761-765 

— , initial series of, inscriptions of 801 

— , Temple of the, inscriptions found in. 732 
Sunoitiwa, member of Asa clan, cited.. 598 

Supela, Snake priest at Walpi 977 

Swastika, a primitive number symbol. 840-841 
Symbolism, use of, in Snake and Piute 

rites.. 1010-1011 

Tabasco, ruins of, inscription of 806 

Tablet of the Cross 733-761 

— , initial series of, inscriptions of 800 

Tablet of the Foliated Cross 765-771 

— , initial series of, inscriptions of 801 

Tablet of the Sun 761-765 

— , initial series of, inscriptions of.. 801 

Tabo (Rabbit) clan, advent of, at 

Walpi. 585 

— , member of Patki group 596 

— , associated with Piba clan 601 

Tabo-Piba group, component clans of. . 583 

— , advent of, at Walpi 585 

Taiowa, statuette of, at Shipaulovi 

altar. 995 

Takhtam, numbers of 870,923,930 

Tanner, Edward, on wild rice in Fox 

river 1034 

— , on Ojibwa tying wild rice 1058 

— , on Ojibwa gathering wild rice 1061 

— , on Ojibwa curing wild rice 1065 

— , on Ojibwa thrashing wild rice 1067 

— , on Ojibwa winnowing wild rice 1071 

— , on Ojibwa storing wild rice 1072 

— , on Ojibwa use of wild rice in Minne- 
sota ... 1035 

— , on amounts of wild rice harvested by 

Ojibwa 1074 

— , on time of year when Ojibwa con- 
sume wild rice. 1087 

Tanner, John, on synonym for Menom- 

ini..'. : 1048 

— , on Indian thanksgiving feasts 1091 

— , on Ottawa wild-rice moon. 1089 

— , on dependence of fur traders on wild 

rice 1103 

Tano, migrations of. 611 

— clan compulsory migrations of 605-606 

19 ETH, PT 2—01 39 



Tansy-mustard clan, see Asa clan. 

Tapolo, reference to 601 

Tarahumari method of counting 868, 

878,879,911,922,929 
Tarascan or Michoacan, numbers of . . . 874, 

878, 880, 909-910, 931 

Tatatl, number names of 871 

TataukyamO, religious society at Walpi. 

source and census of 623, 628 

T atcuktu, ancient order of priests 631 

TCAKWAINA CLAN, See ASA CLAN. 

— , mask , of Asa clan 612 

Tcakwainaki, home of Asa clan 610 

I Tcamahia (flat stone implements), in 

Walpi Snake dance 982 

— (mythic) Hopi clan, mentioned 589 

; Tcewadi, original home of Hano clans. . 614 
TcosHONiwfr (Tcino), Antelope priest, 

description and functions of 984, 985 

— , prominent Snake priest _ 977 

' TcCa(snake)clan, advent of, at Walpi 585-586 

I TcttA group, component clans of 582 

j — clans, census of 587-588 

— , original home and early migrations 

of. 587-590 

Tcuamana, ancestress of Snake clan 965 

Tcubkwitcalobi, see Jettipehika. 
Tct'BWlMPKiA, a religious society from 

Tokonabi, at Walpi 623-624 

Tcukubi, founded by Patufi clan 626 

— , foundation of. 596 

— , settlement of 595 

TCUKUWIMPKIYAS CULT - .- 631 

TcOwimpkia, a religious society from 

Tokonabi, at Walpi 623-624 

Tejon Pass, numbers of 930 

Tellechea, Miguel, on Tarahumari 

numerals 911 

Temple of the Cross, at Palenque, bas 

reliefs at 673 

— , at Palenque, figiire on, compared with 

one at Santa Rita 668 

Temple of Inscriptions 771-775 

— , initial series of, inscriptions of. 801 

Temple, mound-covered, at Santa Rita, 

builders of 670-673 

— , destroyers of 673-675 

— , probable date of building 676-677 

TenOk clan, census of 619, 622 

Tepehuan, numbers of 868,929 

Ternary concept, among primitive peo- 
ple ... 847-848 

Terrava, numbers of 882,931 

Tetsogi, speaks same language as Hano 

clans 614 

Tewa clan, allied with Asa clan against 

the Ute 610 

— , compulsory migration of _ 605-606 

Thiel, on number names of Terrava 882 

Thomas, Dr Cyrus, on Hai-it numera- 
tion 838 

— , on Mayan calendar periods 675 

— , Mayan calendar systems, by 693-819 

— , on Mayan day symbols 671 

— , numeral systems of Mexico and Cen- 
tral America, by 853-955 



1158 



INDEX 



[ETH. ANN. 19 



Thought, primitive, characteristics of 

828-833 

Thrashing wild kice, mechanical 
means employed in. 1070 

— by nailing 1069 

— by churndasher-like stick 1068-1069 

— by rubbing, bruising, and shaking. . 1069-1070 

— by treading 1067-1068 

— , supporting sticks used during 1067, 1069 

— holes, for wild rice 1067-1069 

— machine, first form of 1066-1067 

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, acknowledg- 
ments to... 1020 

-, on wild rice in Fox river 1034 

Tigers, effigiesof, in Santa Rita mounds. 

680,684,687 

Tikal Inscriptions 775-776 

Time units, Mayan, employed in count- 
ing - 860 

— series, in the codices and inscriptions. 715- 

791 

Tiponi on altars 966 

— , at Mishongnovi Flute altar 989 

— , as mother," probable meaning of.... 1005 

— , renewal of Flute 1003-1005 

— , at Walpi, importance of, called 

"mother" 980 

— , use and importance of, in Snake 

dance 980 

Tobacco clan, see Piba clan. 

— , same as Sa clan 615-617 

Tobikhar, numbers of. 870,876,923,930 

Toho clan, relations with Tcua clan.. 588-590 

Tokoanu (Hopi) clan, reference to 583 

Tokonabi (Southern Utah), clans-from. 587- 

594 

— , pueblo of, referred to 586 

— , religious societies from, at Walpi. . 623-624 
Toreva, march of Flute society to the 

pueblo of 999-1000 

Torres Straits, people of, number 

names of 877 

Totonaca method of forming numbers 

above ten 911,931 

— , kingdom of 598 

Toumey, J. W., on absence of wild rice 

in Arizona 1029 

Tracy, S. M., on wild rice in Missis- 
sippi 1030 

Traditions, Hopi, ignorance of, by 

young tribesmen 579 

— , Indian, historic value of. 1039 

Traditionists, Hopi, integrity and reli- 
ability of 579 

Traill, Catherine Parr, on appeai - - 

ance of wild-rice plant 1025 

— , on gathering wild rice 1063 

— , on wild rice eaten with venison 1084 

Trelease, William, on Entyloma cras- 

tophilum 1027 

Trike. meaning of number words in 879 

— method of forming numbers 872, 908, 930 

Troano Codex, on Cauac day symbol 

from 671 

— , cited. 809,810 

— , dominical days of 705 

Trout (lake), chemical composition of. 1082 



Page 

Tschukschi method of forming num- 
bers above ten 913 

Tubic clan 583 

Tucano, probably same as Totonteac ... 599 
Turczaninow, on scientific synonym for 

wild rice 1021 

Turner, Prof. Frederick J., acknowl- 
edgments to 1019 

Turnoa, Flute chief at Walpi 1001-1004 

Turwi, home of Asa clan _ 610 

Turtles, effigies of, in Santa Rita 

mounds . 680-681 

Tuttle, A. H., on wild rice in Virginia . 1032 
Tusayan clans, localization of, by Cos- 
mos Mindeleff 635-653 

Tusayan migration traditions, by 

Dr Jesse Walter Fewkes 573-633 

Tusayan Snake and Flute Ceremo- 
nies, by Dr Jesse Walter Fewkes .. 957-1011 
TDwa (Sand) clan, advent of, at Walpi. 5&5 

— , member of Patki group. 596 

Tt)WA-Kt)Kt)TC clan, census of 603 

— group, component clans of 583 

— , advent of, at Walpi 585 

T Uwanacabi, home of Hanani clans ... 606 
TuwapoStumsi, "Earth-altar woman " . 596 

Tying wild rice, bast use in 1058-1061 

— , mechanical means employed in 1061 

— , reasons for. 1058, 1059 

Tzental, days, list of 807 

— , number names of 862,863 

Tzotzil, number names of 862, 863, 906 

Uhle, Adolph, on Bribi numerals 919 

Umpqua, amounts of wild rice harvested 1076 
Unba, ancient Hano spring on East 

mesa 615 

United States National Museum, 

Mayan codices in 700 

University op Pennsylvania, on Ma- 
yan inscriptions in, and acknowledg- 
ment to 700 

Upham, Warren, on wild rice in Minne- 
sota and Wisconsin 1035, 1036 

Uricoechea, E. , on Chibcha numerals . . 918 

Uspanteca, number names of 862 

Ute, on defeat of, by Tewa. 616 

— , on removal of old Walpi 580 

— , on influence of, on Pueblo architec- 
ture 641 

Utcevaca, site of old Patki pueblo 597 

Ustilago esculenta, destruction of 

wild rice by 1027 

Vasey, Dr George, on wild rice in Si- 
beria 1037 

Vatican Codex, number and day sym- 
bols from 937,938,943-944,947-948 

Verwyst, Chrysostum, on influence of 
wild rice on geographic nomenclature. 1119 

— , on the Assiniboin 1055 

— , on meaning of Ojibwa words 1061 

— , on Ojibwa eating wild rice 1085 

Veytia, Mariano Fernandez D'Eche- 
verria y, on early Toltec migration . . 676 

— , on Mexican calendar system 935 

Viceyta, number names of 882.931 

Vigesimal system, geographic extent 
of 859,925 



ETH. ANN. 19] 



INDEX 



1159 



Page 

Vigesimal system, employed by Mexi- 
can and Mayan peoples 931,934 

— , origin and spread of... 926,937,938 

Village, Pueblo, method of building up 644 

Villages, Indian, location of 1117 

Walpi, advent of Patufi clans at 595 

— , Antelope altar at 980 

— , building of, by advent of numerous 

clans 585-588 

— , causes of removal from 580-581 

— , component clans of 583-584 

— , chronologic sequence of advent of 

clans at 585-586 

— , date of founding modern 587 

— , Flute ceremony at, in 1896 1000-1005 

— , location and settlement of, in Hopi 

country 579 

— , population of, by clans 614 

— , pueblo, origin, and culture of 633 

— , religious societies at 633-630 

— ritual 631-632 

— , Snake dance at, in 1891,1893, reference 

to 964 

— , Snake dance at, in 1897 976-985 

— , Old, sites of 580-581 

War Raids, influence of, on Pueblo 

architecture 641 

Warden, on influence of wild rice on 

geographic nomenclature 1133 

Warren, William W., on meaning of 

Sauk and Fox tribal names 1050 

— , on separation of Assiniboin from their 

Siouan kinsmen 1054 

— , on traditional history of Ojibwa, Pota- 

watomi, and Ottawa 1038-1039 

— , on wild rice in Mille Lacs 1035-1036 

— , on Ojibwa use of wild rice.. 1042 

— , on time of year when O jibwa consume 

wild rice 1088 

— , on influence of wild rice on geographic 

nomenclature 1116,1130 

Warrior, description of man to repre- 
sent, in Flute ceremony 999 

Warriors, paintings of, on wall in Santa 

Rita mound 665-667 

Washing the snakes 977-978 

Watchandies, number names of 877 

Water, high, destruction of wild rice by. 1037, 

1099, 1100 

Waterfowl, destructive to wild rice . . . 1036 
Water-house clan, associated with 

Pibaclan 601 

Water People, arrival of, at Tusayan. . 652 
Wea (Ouachtenons), population of in 1764. 1108 

Wehe, on site of Katcina kiva 607 

Wenibojo, the mythic personage who 

first gave wild rice to the Ojibwa . . 1093-1094 
Western Journal, on wild rice in water 

system of Red River of the North 1035 

Wheat, chemical composition of 1082 

Wheeler, C. F. , on wild rice in Michigan 1030 
Whips, see Snake whips. 
White-fish, whole, chemical composi- 
tion of 1082 

White hominy, commercial, chemical 
composition of 1081 



Page 

White man, dependence of, on wild 

rice 1101-1105 

Whites, as spectators, influence of, on 

Snake dance 978 

Whortelberries, chemical composition 

of 1081 

Wiandots, population of 1108,1109,1110 

Wigwams, see Cedar bark, Birch 

bark; also list of illustrations 1017 

Wihinacht, number names of 870 

Wiki, Antelope priest, description of .. . 984 

— , functions of 977 

— , Hopi Snake clan chief, reference to . . . 579 

Wikwaliobi-kiva, mention of 611 

Wikyatiwa, Antelope priest, descrip- 
tion and function of 985 

— , on advent of clans at Walpi 585 

— (Hopi, snake) clan chief, reference 

to - 579 

Wild rice, botany of 1021 

—, scientific description of 1025 

— , popular description of 1025 

— , scientific synonyms for 1021 

— , popular synonyms for 1032-1034 

— , natural enemies of 1036 

— , general habitat of 1028 

— , habitat of, by States 1028-1033 

— , habitat of, in "wild-rice district". 1033-1036 
— , foreign habitat of 1036-1037 

— in Winnebago tribal mythology 1091 

— in Menomini tribal organization. . . 1090-1093 

— in Potawatomi tribal mythology . . 1091-1093 

— in Ojibwa tradition. 1057-1058, 1093-1095 

— , reasons for first use of. 1113-1114 

— , sowing of 1057-1058 

— , tying of 1058-1061 

— , gathering of 1061-1064 

— , curing of '. 1064-1066 

— . thrashing of 1066-1070 

— , winnowing of 1070-1071 

— , storing of 1071-1072 

— , property-right in 1072-1073 

— , amounts of, harvested 1073-1079 

— , nutrition of ._ 1080-1083 

— cooked for food 1083-1086,1091 

— , periods of its consumption ... 1086-1088 

— feast, at harvest time 1091 

— harvest, religious observances con- 
nected with 1091 

— , social and economic interpretations 

of, in its influence on the Indian 1089-1114 

— , value of, per bushel 1078 

— , importance of, to Indian 1096 

1097,1098,1100-1101 

— , weight of, per bushel 1075 

— , importance of, to fur trade 1101-1104 

— , reliability of crop of 1095, 1099-1101. 1U4 

— , dependence of white man on 1101-1105 

— villages, Dakota 1045, 1046. 1047 

— villages, Ojibwa 1043 

— , influence of, on geographic nomencla- 
ture 1042.1115-1126 

— district, Indian population in HOii-1114 

— planted in England 1037 

Wild rice, gatherers of the Upper 

Lakes, by Dr Albert Ernest Jenks . 1013-1137 



18 1902 



1160 



INDEX 



[ETH. ANN. 19 



Page 

Williams, Thomas A., on value of duck 

to Indians... 1098 

Williamson, John P., on Dakota gath- 
ering wild rice 1062 

— , on Dakota tying wild rice . . . 1058 

— , on Dakota thrashing wild rice 1069 

— , on Dakota use of wild rice 1047 

Wilson, Edward P., on meaning of 

Ojibwa words 1061 

— , on meaning and use of " meno " 1024 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1033 

— , on Ojibwa wild-rice moon 1089 

Wilson, H. V., on wild rice in North 

Carolina 1031 

Wilson, on the swastika 840 

WiSba, home of Katcina clan 607 

Winima, home of Calako 612 

Winnebago, see Indians in wild-rice dis- 
trict 1051 

— , first historic mention of 1052 

— , tribal names, history, migrations, and 

settlement of 1051-1053 

— , population of 1108, 1109, 1110 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— cure wild rice 1065 

— thrash wild rice by flailing 1069 

— , population of, consuming wild rice 1053 
Winnipeg water system, wild rice in _ . . 1035 

Winnowing wild rice 1070-1071 

— , mechanical means used in 1071 

Winship, G. Parker, on Coronado 599 

Winuta, (Flute) Chief, description of, 

and renewing of tiponi by 1003-1004 

Wisconsin Pur Trade Accounts, on 

popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

Wis. Hist. Colls., on duck in Green bay. 1098 

— , on popular synonym for wild rice 1023 

— , on dependence of fur traders on wild 

rice 1103 

— , on Menomini population 1049 

— , on synonyms for Menomini Indians. . . 1048 

— , on Ottawa gathering wild rice 1063 

— , on Ojibwa eating wild rice 1085 

Wis. Hist. Soc. Ms. Coll. , on importance 

of wild rice to the Indian 1096 



Page 

Wisconsin Indians (Ouisconsins), pop- 
ulation of, in 1764 1108 

Wisconsin river, wild rice in 1034 

Wolf river, wild rice in 1034 

Woll, Prof. F. W., acknowledgments 

to 1020 

— , on chemical composition of wild rice . 1080- 

1082 

Woman, man's first thrashing machine . . 1066- 

1067 

Women, members of Snake society 979 

Woodward, R. S., on pure mathemat- 
ics 827 

Wooton, E. O., on absence of wild rice 

in New Mexico 1031 

Wukoanu. (Hopi) Clan, reference to . 583 

Wukoki Pueblo, by whom built 589 

Wukopakabi, home of Hano clans. 614 

8tagami, see Pox Indians. 
WCwtiTCiMTu, religious society at Wal- 

pi, source and census of 623,628 

Xincan, number names 881 

Yakima, amounts of wild rice harvested 

by — 1075 

Yaquis method of forming numbers 

above ten 909 

Year, Mayan, various interpretations 

of 747-748 

Yet'tripih, number names of 871 

Ymolina, Luis de Neve, on formation 

of Othomi numerals 909 

— , on Othomi annumerals 909 

— , on Othomi annumbers.. 873 

— , on Othomi number names 873 

Yucatan, ruins of, inscriptions of 806 

— , bas-reliefs at 673 

Zapotec method of forming numerals 

above ten 885-888 

— , numbers of 872,930 

ZlZANI A AQUATIC A 1021 

— MILIACEA 1022 

Zoque, formation of number words in . . . 873- 
874,880,907,930 

ZuSl, see SlOKl 610 

Zuni Calako, came from Minima 612 



o 



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